Difference between revisions of "User:Shawndouglas/sandbox/sublevel7"

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'''Free and open-source software''' ('''FOSS''') is computer [[software]] that can be classified as a union of two software development models: free software and [[open-source software]]. First, anyone is licensed to freely use, copy, study, and change the software in any way. Second, the source code is openly shared so that people are encouraged to voluntarily improve the design of the software.<ref name="GNUFreeDef">{{cite web |url=https://www.gnu.org/philosophy/free-sw.html |title=What is free software? |work=GNU.org |publisher=Free Software Foundation, Inc |date=01 January 2016 |accessdate=13 January 2016}}</ref> In contrast, [[proprietary software]] is under restrictive copyright, and the source code is usually hidden from users.
'''Free and open-source software''' ('''FOSS''') is computer [[software]] that can be classified as a union of two software development models: free software and [[open-source software]]. First, anyone is licensed to freely use, copy, study, and change the software in any way. Second, the source code is openly shared so that people are encouraged to voluntarily improve the design of the software.<ref name="GNUFreeDef">{{cite web |url=https://www.gnu.org/philosophy/free-sw.html |title=What is free software? |work=GNU.org |publisher=Free Software Foundation, Inc |date=01 January 2016 |accessdate=13 January 2016}}</ref> In contrast, [[proprietary software]] is under restrictive copyright, and the source code is usually hidden from users.


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In 2006, the Brazilian government has simultaneously encouraged the distribution of cheap computers running Linux throughout its poorer communities by subsidizing their purchase with tax breaks.<ref name="CassonOpen06" />
In 2006, the Brazilian government has simultaneously encouraged the distribution of cheap computers running Linux throughout its poorer communities by subsidizing their purchase with tax breaks.<ref name="CassonOpen06" />


In April 2008,<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://compgroups.net/comp.os.linux.advocacy/-news-ecuador-ahead-of-the-world-with/1773288|title = [News] Ecuador Ahead of the World with Democracy of Knowledge|date = |accessdate = |website = |publisher = |last = |first = }}</ref> Ecuador passed a similar law, Decree 1014, designed to migrate the public sector to Libre Software.<ref>[http://www.estebanmendieta.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/Decreto_1014_software_libre_Ecuador.pdf Estebanmendieta.com], Decree 1014</ref>
In April 2008,<ref>{{cite web|url = http://compgroups.net/comp.os.linux.advocacy/-news-ecuador-ahead-of-the-world-with/1773288|title = [News] Ecuador Ahead of the World with Democracy of Knowledge|date = |accessdate = |website = |publisher = |last = |first = }}</ref> Ecuador passed a similar law, Decree 1014, designed to migrate the public sector to Libre Software.<ref>[http://www.estebanmendieta.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/Decreto_1014_software_libre_Ecuador.pdf Estebanmendieta.com], Decree 1014</ref>


In February 2009, the United States White House moved its website to Linux servers using [[Drupal]] for content management.<ref name="Vaughan-NicholsObama09">{{cite news |last=Vaughan-Nichols |first=Steven J. |url=http://www.pcworld.com/article/174746/obama_invites_open_source_into_the_white_house.html |title=Obama Invites Open Source into the White House |work=PCWorld |date=October 29, 2009 |accessdate=2015-06-27 |ref=harv}}</ref>
In February 2009, the United States White House moved its website to Linux servers using [[Drupal]] for content management.<ref name="Vaughan-NicholsObama09">{{cite news |last=Vaughan-Nichols |first=Steven J. |url=http://www.pcworld.com/article/174746/obama_invites_open_source_into_the_white_house.html |title=Obama Invites Open Source into the White House |work=PCWorld |date=October 29, 2009 |accessdate=2015-06-27 |ref=harv}}</ref>

Revision as of 21:39, 14 January 2016

File:Opensourcelogos.png

Free and open-source software (FOSS) is computer software that can be classified as a union of two software development models: free software and open-source software. First, anyone is licensed to freely use, copy, study, and change the software in any way. Second, the source code is openly shared so that people are encouraged to voluntarily improve the design of the software.[1] In contrast, proprietary software is under restrictive copyright, and the source code is usually hidden from users.

Despite similarities in their development models, both "free software" and "open-source software" feature differing cultures and philosophies.[2] "Free" refers to the users' freedom to copy and re-use the software. The Free Software Foundation, an organization that advocates the free software model, suggests that to understand the concept, one should "think of 'free' as in 'free speech,' not as in 'free beer'".[1] while focusing on the fundamental freedoms it gives to users. The "open-source" component, however, focuses on the perceived strengths of its peer-to-peer development model.[2] Despite these differences, the term "FOSS" can generally be used without particular bias towards either political approach.

The benefits of using FOSS potentially include decreasing software costs, increasing security and stability (especially in regard to malware), protecting privacy, and giving users more control over their software development.[3][4]

History

In the 1950s and '60s, it was common for computer users to have the source code for all programs they used as well as the permission and ability to modify it for their own use. Software, including source code, was commonly shared by individuals who used computers. Most companies had a business model based on hardware sales, and provided or bundled the software free of charge.[5][6] Organizations of users and suppliers such as SHARE and DECUS were formed to further facilitate the exchange of software and provide technical advice.[7]

By the late 1960s, the prevailing business model around software was beginning to change. A growing and evolving software industry was competing with hardware manufacturers' bundled software products; rather than funding software development from hardware revenue, these new companies were selling software directly. Leased machines required software support while providing no revenue for software, and some customers able to better meet their own needs did not want the costs of software bundled with their hardware costs. In United States vs. IBM, filed January 17, 1969, the government charged that bundled software was anticompetitive.[8][7]

By the 1970s and early 1980s, pure software companies were fully developed, with some in the industry beginning to use technical measures (such as only distributing binary copies of computer programs) to prevent computer users from being able to use reverse engineering techniques to study and customize software they had paid for. This idea that the underlying code in software was something to protect was further cemented in 1980, when copyright law was extended to computer programs in the United States[9] — previously, computer programs could only be considered ideas, procedures, methods, systems, and processes, which were not copyrightable.[10][11]

In 1983, Richard Stallman, longtime member of the hacker community at the MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, announced the GNU project, saying that he had become frustrated with the effects of the change in culture of the computer industry and its users.[12] Software development for the GNU operating system began in January 1984, and the Free Software Foundation (FSF) was founded in October 1985. An article outlining the project and its goals was published in March 1985 titled the GNU Manifesto. The manifesto included significant explanation of the GNU philosophy and went on to promote concepts such as "free software" and "copyleft" licensing.[13]

Stallman's efforts would eventually go on to influence other programmers. Linus Torvalds released the Linux kernel in 1991. Though Linux was not initially released under a free or open-source software license, Torvalds re-licensed the project under the GNU General Public License with version 0.12 in February 1992.[14] Much like Unix, Torvalds' kernel attracted the attention of volunteer programmers.[15][16] Other open-source projects that started or picked up speed during the early to mid-'90s include FreeBSD, NetBSD, OpenBSD, and Apache.

In 1997, Eric Raymond published The Cathedral and the Bazaar, a reflective analysis of the hacker community and free software principles, comparing commercial (cathedral) and dispersed (bazaar) software development. A roundtable meeting of Linux community members and Raymond resulted in the creation of an "open source" definition and adoption of its ideal; the original announcement of what became known as The Open Source Definition was made on February 9, 1998 on Slashdot[17] and elsewhere. The paper and associated community meetings received significant attention afterwards, with Raymond and programmer Bruce Perens starting the Open Source Initiative. Shortly before that, Netscape Communications Corporation announced it would be working towards releasing their popular Netscape Communicator Internet suite — today known as Mozilla Firefox and Thunderbird — as free and open-source software.[18][19]

It didn't take long for the free and open source buzz to catch on. One of the first known public uses of the free open-source software concept (outside Raymond and Netscape Communications) was in a Usenet posting on March 19, 1998 advertising the free open-source KLyX word processing app, a little more than a month after the term open source itself was coined.[20] However, while the Open Source Initiative sought to encourage the use of the new term and evangelize the principles it adhered to, commercial software vendors found themselves increasingly threatened by the concept of freely distributed software and universal access to an application's source code. Microsoft executive Jim Allchin publicly stated in 2001 that "open source is an intellectual property destroyer. I can't imagine something that could be worse than this for the software business and the intellectual-property business."[21]

Despite this sentiment and the role FOSS has historically played outside the mainstream of software development and business IT, the gradual adoption of open-source software in the business world began to take shape. In August 2005, Oracle president Charles Phillips spoke at the LinuxWorld trade show, reporting that "open source experienced 32 percent unit growth and 31 percent revenue growth in 2004 as it began to move more deeply into the data center."[22] Companies such as IBM also began to integrate Linux and other open-source solutions into their attempts to better support business-class customers.[22] Additionally, companies large and small begun to develop official open-source presences on the internet. As corporate philosophies began to shift, companies like IBM, Oracle, Google, and State Farm started to command a more serious public stake in the competitive open-source market.[23]

Alternative terms for FOSS

Much ado has been made over the past few decades about the labels applied to software that does not require payment to use and is open to investigation and modification by the user. Computer scientists such as Richard Stallman[24], Bruce Perens[25], David Wheeler[26], and Björn Schießle[27] have all published their thoughts on what the most apt terminology should be. Aside from FOSS, the following are the most common terms that have been used.

Free software

Richard Stallman's Free Software Definition, adopted by the Free Software Foundation (FSF), defines free software as a matter of freedom or liberty, not price. More specifically, he places the following stipulations on free software:

A program is free software if the program's users have the four essential freedoms:

  • The freedom to run the program as you wish, for any purpose (freedom 0).
  • The freedom to study how the program works, and change it so it does your computing as you wish (freedom 1). Access to the source code is a precondition for this.
  • The freedom to redistribute copies so you can help your neighbor (freedom 2).
  • The freedom to distribute copies of your modified versions to others (freedom 3). By doing this you can give the whole community a chance to benefit from your changes. Access to the source code is a precondition for this.[1]

The earliest known publication of the definition of his free software idea was in the February 1986 edition of the FSF's now-discontinued GNU's Bulletin publication.[28] The canonical source for the document is in the philosophy section of the GNU Project website and is published in 40 different languages.[1]

The term "free software" is essentially the predecessor of "open source," which was brought to the public conscious by Eric Raymond's The Cathedral and the Bazaar in late 1997 and early 1998. In his noted revisions, Raymond documented "I changed 'free software' to 'open source'" on February 9, 1998[18], the same day the open source definition was publicly announced.[17]

Open source

The Open Source Definition is used by the Open Source Initiative (OSI) to determine whether a software license qualifies for the organization's insignia for open-source software. The definition was based on the Debian Free Software Guidelines, written and adapted primarily by programmer and free software activist Bruce Perens.[29][30] Perens did not base his writing on the four freedoms of free software from the Free Software Foundation, which were only later available on the web. Perens eventually left the OSI in 1999, a year after co-founding it. In an email to the Debian developers mailing list explaining his decision, he stated that though "most hackers know that Free Software and Open Source are just two words for the same thing", the success of "open source" as a marketing term had "de-emphasized the importance of the freedoms involved in Free Software."; he added, "It's time for us to fix that." He also stated his regret that OSI co-founder Eric Raymond "seem[ed] to be losing his free software focus."[25]

FLOSS

The term "FLOSS" (free/libre and open-source software) was coined in 2001 by Rishab Aiyer Ghosh, Gregorio Robles, and other members of the Infonomics FLOSS team for a European Commission-funded project on the open source/free software (OS/FS) phenomena.[2][31][32]

The term "FLOSS" aims to avoid taking sides in the debate over whether it was better to say "free software" or to say "open-source software". Proponents of the term point out that parts of the FLOSS acronym can be translated into other languages, with for example the "F" representing "free" (English) or "frei" (German), and the '"L" representing "libre" (Spanish or French), "livre" (Portuguese), or "libero" (Italian), "liber" (Romanian), and so on. However, this term is not often used in official non-English documents since the words in these languages don't have the same ambiguity as "free" does in English (either as "without cost" or as "freedom").[4][24]

Licensing: copyleft vs permissive

Licenses that restrict mixing of works licensed under them with proprietary works, like GNU GPL 3, are called copyleft licenses.[citation needed]

Licenses considered to have minimum restrictions of that kind, like Apache license, are called permissive software licenses.[citation needed]

Dualism of FOSS

The primary license difference between free software and open source is one of philosophy. According to the Free Software Foundation, "Nearly all open source software is free software. The two terms describe almost the same category of software, but they stand for views based on fundamentally different values."[33]

Thus, the Open Source Initiative considers many free software licenses to also be open-source. These include the latest versions of the FSF's three main licenses: the GPL, the Lesser General Public License (LGPL), and the GNU Affero General Public License (AGPL).[34]

Adoption

By public institutions

In early 2002, MITRE used the term FOSS in what would later be their 2003 report "Use of Free and Open Source Software (FOSS) in the U.S. Department of Defense".Template:Cn

"We migrated key functions from Windows to Linux because we needed an operating system that was stable and reliable -- one that would give us in-house control. So if we needed to patch, adjust, or adapt, we could."

Official statement of the United Space Alliance, which manages the computer systems for the International Space Station (ISS), regarding why they chose to switch from Windows to Linux on the ISS.[35][36]

The Government of Kerala, India, announced its official support for free/open-source software in its State IT Policy of 2001,[37] which was formulated after the first-ever free software conference in India, Freedom First!, held in July 2001 in Trivandrum, the capital of Kerala. In 2009, Government of Kerala started the International Centre for Free and Open Source Software (ICFOSS).[38] In March 2015 the Indian government announced a policy on adoption of open source software.[39][40]

In the German City of Munich, conversion of 15,000 PCs and laptops from Microsoft Windows-based operating systems to a Debian-based Linux environment called LiMux spanned the ten years of 2003 to 2013. After successful completion of the project, more than 80% of all computers were running Linux.[41]

In 2004, a law in Venezuela (Decree 3390) went into effect, mandating a two-year transition to open source in all public agencies. As of June 2009, this ambitious transition was still under way.[42][43] Malaysia

launched the "Malaysian Public Sector Open Source Software Program", saving millions on proprietary software licenses until 2008.[44][45]

In 2005 the Government of Peru voted to adopt open source across all its bodies.[46] The 2002 response to Microsoft's critique is available online. In the preamble to the bill, the Peruvian government stressed that the choice was made to ensure that key pillars of democracy were safeguarded: "The basic principles which inspire the Bill are linked to the basic guarantees of a state of law."[47]

In September, the Commonwealth of Massachusetts announced its formal adoption of the OpenDocument standard for all Commonwealth entities.[48]

In 2006, the Brazilian government has simultaneously encouraged the distribution of cheap computers running Linux throughout its poorer communities by subsidizing their purchase with tax breaks.[48]

In April 2008,[49] Ecuador passed a similar law, Decree 1014, designed to migrate the public sector to Libre Software.[50]

In February 2009, the United States White House moved its website to Linux servers using Drupal for content management.[51]

In March, the French Gendarmerie Nationale announced it will totally switch to Ubuntu by 2015. The Gendarmerie began its transition to open source software in 2005 when it replaced Microsoft Office with OpenOffice.org across the entire organization.[52]

In January 2010, the Government of Jordan announced a partnership with Ingres Corporation (now named Actian), a open source database management company based in the United States, to promote open-source software use, starting with university systems in Jordan.[53]

In September 2014, the Uganda National Information Technology Authority (NITA-U) announced a call for feedback on an Open Source Strategy & Policy[54] at a workshop in conjunction with the ICT Association of Uganda (ICTAU)

FOSS and Benkler's new economy

According to Yochai Benkler, Jack N. and Lillian R. Berkman Professor for Entrepreneurial Legal Studies at Harvard Law School, free software is the most visible part of a new economy of commons-based peer production of information, knowledge, and culture. As examples, he cites a variety of FOSS projects, including both free software and open-source.[55]

This new economy is already under development. To commercialize FOSS, many companies move towards advertisement-supported software. In such a model, the only way to increase revenue is to make the advertisement more valuable. Facebook has recently been criticized for using novel methods of tracking users to accomplish this.[56]

This new economy has alternatives. Apple's App Stores have proven very popular with both users and developers. The Free Software Foundation considers Apple's App Stores to be incompatible with its GPL and complained that Apple was infringing on the GPL with its iTunes terms of use. Rather than change those terms to comply with the GPL, Apple removed the GPL-licensed products from its App Stores.[57]

See also

Further reading

Further reading


External links

Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: FLOSS Concept Booklet
Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: FOSS A General Introduction
Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: FOSS Open Standards

Notes

This article reuses some content from the Wikipedia article.

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 "What is free software?". GNU.org. Free Software Foundation, Inc. 1 January 2016. https://www.gnu.org/philosophy/free-sw.html. Retrieved 13 January 2016. 
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 Feller, Joseph; Fitzgerald, Brian; Hissam, Scott A.; Lakhani, Karim R. (2005). Perspectives on Free and Open Source Software. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. pp. 538. ISBN 9780262062466. https://books.google.com/books?id=C0Z30r8qdpcC. Retrieved 13 January 2016. 
  3. ↑ Claburn, Thomas (17 January 2007). "Study Finds Open Source Benefits Business". InformationWeek (CMP Media, LLC). http://www.informationweek.com/study-finds-open-source-benefits-business-/d/d-id/1050799?. Retrieved 13 January 2016. 
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Wheeler, David A. (18 July 2015). "Why Open Source Software / Free Software (OSS/FS, FLOSS, or FOSS)? Look at the Numbers!". DWheeler.com. http://www.dwheeler.com/oss_fs_why.html. Retrieved 13 January 2016. 
  5. ↑ Bainbridge, William S., ed. (2004). Berkshire Encyclopedia of Human-computer Interaction. Barrington, MA: Berkshire Publishing Group. pp. 958. ISBN 9780974309125. https://books.google.com/books?id=568u_k1R4lUC&pg=PA532. Retrieved 13 January 2016. 
  6. ↑ Rost, Johann; Glass, Robert L. (2011). The Dark Side of Software Engineering: Evil on Computing Projects. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 316. ISBN 9780470922873. https://books.google.com/books?id=f_FyOg5XW_IC&pg=PT202. Retrieved 13 January 2016. 
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Jones, Capers (2013). The Technical and Social History of Software Engineering. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Addison-Wesley. pp. 496. ISBN 9780133365894. https://books.google.com/books?id=_H8lAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA87. Retrieved 13 January 2016. 
  8. ↑ Fisher, Franklin M.; McKie, James W.; Mancke, Richard B. (1983). IBM and the U.S. Data Processing Industry: An Economic History. Praeger. ISBN 9780030630590. https://books.google.com/books?id=ZI-1AAAAIAAJ. 
  9. ↑ "Public Law 96-517" (PDF). National Institutes of Health. 12 December 1980. https://history.nih.gov/research/downloads/PL96-517.pdf. Retrieved 13 January 2016. 
  10. ↑ "Copyright Overview". Copyright Basics. Purdue University. 2009. https://www.lib.purdue.edu/uco/CopyrightBasics/basics.html. Retrieved 13 January 2016. 
  11. ↑ Weber, Steve (2009). The Success of Open Source. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. pp. 320. ISBN 9780674044999. https://books.google.com/books?id=78SLSiWqy14C&pg=PA4. Retrieved 13 January 2016. 
  12. ↑ Williams, Sam (2002). Free as in Freedom: Richard Stallman's Crusade for Free Software. Sabastopol, CA: O'Reilly and Associates. pp. 240. ISBN 9781449323363. https://books.google.com/books?id=IELrzjhGFDQC. 
  13. ↑ "The GNU Manifesto". GNU.org. Free Software Foundation, Inc. 2 June 2015. http://www.gnu.org/gnu/manifesto.en.html. Retrieved 13 January 2016. 
  14. ↑ Torvalds, Linus (February 1992). "Release notes for Linux v0.12". The Linux Kernel Archive. Linux Kernel Organization, Inc. https://www.kernel.org/pub/linux/kernel/Historic/old-versions/RELNOTES-0.12. Retrieved 13 January 2016. 
  15. ↑ Larkin, Nate (2007). Samson and the Pirate Monks: Calling Men to Authentic Brotherhood. Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson. pp. 224. ISBN 9781418577698. https://books.google.com/books?id=bh6bmGYcCxwC&pg=PA197. Retrieved 13 January 2016. 
  16. ↑ Egan, David; Zikopoulous, Paul (2000). DBAs Guide to Databases On Linux. Rockland, MA: Syngress Media, Inc. pp. 485. ISBN 9780080530291. https://books.google.com/books?id=TszUjeyeo8cC&pg=PA2. Retrieved 13 January 2016. 
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 "Free Software's New Name". Slashdot. SlashdotMedia. 9 February 1998. http://news.slashdot.org/story/98/02/09/213900/free-softwares-new-name. Retrieved 14 January 2016. 
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 Raymond, Eric S. (3 October 2005). "The Cathedral and the Bazaar". First Monday (Special issue #2). doi:10.5210/fm.v0i0.1472. http://firstmonday.org/ojs/index.php/fm/article/view/1472/1387. Retrieved 13 January 2016. 
  19. ↑ Muffatto, Moreno (2006). Open Source: A Multidisciplinary Approach. London: Imperial College Press. pp. 260. ISBN 9781908979803. https://books.google.com/books?id=cGW7CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA14. Retrieved 14 January 2016. 
  20. ↑ Klaus; Niepraschk, Rolf (19 March 1998). "fwd: announce: klyx -- the kde document processor". The Usenet Archive. http://www.theusenetarchive.com/usenet-message-de-comp-text-tex-comp-text-tex-fwd-announce-kl-27758785.htm. Retrieved 13 January 2016. 
  21. ↑ Charny, Ben (02 January 2002). "Microsoft Raps Open-Source Approach". CNET (CBS Interactive Inc). http://www.cnet.com/news/microsoft-raps-open-source-approach/. Retrieved 14 January 2016. 
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 Hatlestad, Luc (August 9, 2005). "LinuxWorld Showcases Open-Source Growth, Expansion". InformationWeek (CMP Media, LLC). Archived from the original on 2007-11-25. http://www.webcitation.org/5Tchd69ij. Retrieved 2007-11-25. 
  23. ↑ Miller, K.W.; Voas, J.; Costello, T. (2010). "Free and open source software". IT Professional 12 (6): 14-16. doi:10.1109/MITP.2010.147. 
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 Stallman, Richard (9 November 2015). "FLOSS and FOSS". GNU.org. Free Software Foundation, Inc. http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/floss-and-foss.en.html. Retrieved 14 January 2016. 
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 Perens, Bruce (17 February 1999). "It's Time to Talk About Free Software Again". lists.debian.org. Software in the Public Interest, Inc. https://lists.debian.org/debian-devel/1999/02/msg01641.html. Retrieved 14 January 2016. 
  26. ↑ Wheeler, David A. (2015). "Open Source Software / Free Software (OSS/FS or FLOSS) References". DWheeler.com. http://www.dwheeler.com/oss_fs_refs.html. Retrieved 14 January 2016. 
  27. ↑ Schießle, Björn (11 May 2012). "Free Software, Open Source, FOSS, FLOSS – Same same but different". blog.schiessle.org. https://blog.schiessle.org/2012/05/11/free-software-open-source-foss-floss-same-same-but-different/. Retrieved 14 January 2016. 
  28. ↑ Stallman, Richard M. (February 1986). "What is the Free Software Foundation?". GNU's Bulletin 1 (1): 8–9. https://www.gnu.org/bulletins/bull1.txt. Retrieved 14 January 2016. 
  29. ↑ Perens, Bruce (1999). "The Open Source Definition". Open Sources: Voices from the Open Source Revolution. O'Reilly Media. ISBN 1565925823. http://www.oreilly.com/openbook/opensources/book/perens.html. 
  30. ↑ "The Open Source Definition". Open Source Initiative. 22 March 2007. http://opensource.org/docs/osd. Retrieved 14 January 2016. 
  31. ↑ Berlecon Research (June 2002). "Free/Libre and Open Source Software: Survey and Study". European Commission. Archived from the original on 15 December 2002. https://web.archive.org/web/20021215064824/http://floss.infonomics.nl/outline.htm. Retrieved 14 January 2016. 
  32. ↑ Herbst, Claudia (2008). Sexing Code: Subversion, Theory and Representation. Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. ISBN 9781847184795. https://books.google.com/books?id=QV8ZBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA26. Retrieved 14 January 2016. 
  33. ↑ Stallman, Richard (20 May 2024). "Why Open Source misses the point of Free Software". GNU.org. Free Software Foundation. https://www.gnu.org/philosophy/open-source-misses-the-point.html. Retrieved 2015-06-27. 
  34. ↑ "Licenses by Name". Open Source License. Open Source Initiative. http://www.opensource.org/licenses/alphabetical. Retrieved 23 October 2011. 
  35. ↑ Gunter, Joel (May 10, 2013). "International Space Station to boldly go with Linux over Windows". The Telegraph. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/news/10049444/International-Space-Station-to-boldly-go-with-Linux-over-Windows.html. Retrieved 2015-06-27. 
  36. ↑ Bridgewater, Adrian (May 13, 2013). "International Space Station adopts Debian Linux, drops Windows & Red Hat into airlock". Computer Weekly. http://www.computerweekly.com/blogs/open-source-insider/2013/05/international-space-station-adopts-debian-linux-drop-windows-red-hat-into-airlock.html. Retrieved 2015-06-27. 
  37. ↑ ""Role of Open or Free Software", Section 15, page 20, of the State IT Policy (2001) of the Government of Kerala, copy available at the UN Public Administration Network (UNPAN) site". http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/apcity/unpan002950.pdf. 
  38. ↑ http://www.keralait.org/blog/2011/02/25/chief-minister-inaugurates-icfoss-in-kerala/
  39. ↑ Alawadhi, Neha (March 30, 2015). "Government announces policy on open source software". The Times of India. http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tech/tech-news/Govt-announces-policy-on-open-source-software/articleshow/46745926.cms. Retrieved 2015-06-27. 
  40. ↑ "Policy on Adoption of Open Source Software for Government of India". http://deity.gov.in/sites/upload_files/dit/files/policy_on_adoption_of_oss.pdf. 
  41. ↑ "Landeshauptstadt München - Aktuelle Zahlen" (in German). Muenchen.de. http://www.muenchen.de/rathaus/Stadtverwaltung/Direktorium/LiMux/Zahlen_Fakten/Projektstatus.html. Retrieved 2014-07-28. 
  42. ↑ Venezuela Open Source[dead link]
  43. ↑ Chavez, Hugo F. (December 2004). "Publicado en la Gaceta oficial No 38.095 de fecha 28/ 12/ 2004". http://www.tsj.gov.ve/gaceta/Diciembre/281204/281204-38095-08.html. Retrieved 23 October 2011. 
  44. ↑ "OSCC.org". OSCC.org. http://www.oscc.org.my/. Retrieved 23 October 2011. 
  45. ↑ "OSCC.org". http://knowledge.oscc.org.my/newsletters/first-quarterly-e-newsletter-jan-2009. Retrieved 23 October 2011. 
  46. ↑ Clarke, Gavin (September 29, 2005). "Peru's parliament approves pro-open source bill". The Register. http://www.theregister.co.uk/2005/09/29/peru_goes_open_source/. Retrieved 2015-06-27. 
  47. ↑ National Advisory Council on Innovation Open Software Working Group (July 2004). "Free/Libre & Open Source Software and Open Standards in South Africa" (PDF). Archived from the original on December 22, 2014. https://web.archive.org/20141222121451/http://www.prodefinity.de:80/docs/floss_v2_6_9.pdf. Retrieved 31 May 2008. 
  48. ↑ 48.0 48.1 Casson, Tony; Ryan, Patrick S. (1 May 2006). "Open Standards, Open Source Adoption in the Public Sector, and Their Relationship to Microsoft’s Market Dominance". In Bolin, Sherrie. Standards Edge: Unifier or Divider?. Sheridan Books. p. 87. ISBN 0974864854. 
  49. ↑ "[News Ecuador Ahead of the World with Democracy of Knowledge"]. http://compgroups.net/comp.os.linux.advocacy/-news-ecuador-ahead-of-the-world-with/1773288. 
  50. ↑ Estebanmendieta.com, Decree 1014
  51. ↑ Vaughan-Nichols, Steven J. (October 29, 2009). "Obama Invites Open Source into the White House". PCWorld. http://www.pcworld.com/article/174746/obama_invites_open_source_into_the_white_house.html. Retrieved 2015-06-27. 
  52. ↑ Paul, Ryan (March 11, 2009). "French police: we saved millions of euros by adopting Ubuntu". Ars Technica. http://arstechnica.com/open-source/news/2009/03/french-police-saves-millions-of-euros-by-adopting-ubuntu.ars. Retrieved 2015-06-27. 
  53. ↑ "Jordan Information Ministry signs deal on open source - Government - News & Features". ITP.net. http://www.itp.net/578825-jordan-information-ministry-signs-deal-on-open-source. Retrieved 2012-04-23. 
  54. ↑ "Open Source Strategy & Policy"
  55. ↑ Benkler, Yochai (April 2003). "Freedom in the Commons: Towards a Political Economy of Information". Duke Law Journal 52 (6). http://www.law.duke.edu/shell/cite.pl?52+Duke+L.+J.+1245+pdf. 
  56. ↑ ElBoghdady, Dina; Tsukayama, Hayley (September 29, 2011). "Facebook tracking prompts calls for FTC investigation". The Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/business/economy/facebook-tracking-prompts-calls-for-ftc-investigation/2011/09/29/gIQAVdsP8K_story.html. Retrieved 2015-06-27. 
  57. ↑ Vaughan-Nichols, Steven (January 8, 2011). "No GPL Apps for Apple's App Store". ZDNet. http://www.zdnet.com/blog/open-source/no-gpl-apps-for-apples-app-store/8046. Retrieved 2015-06-27. 


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