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===1.3 The relationship between cloud computing and the open source paradigm===
Cloud computing is built on a wide array of technologies and utilities, including many built on the open source paradigm. According to the Open Source Initiative, open-source software, hardware, etc. is open-source not only because of its implied open access to how it's constructed (e.g., source code, schematics) but also for a number of other reasons<ref name="OSITheOpen07">{{cite web |url=https://opensource.org/osd/ |title=The Open Source Definition, Version 1.9 |publisher=Open Source Initiative |date=03 June 2007 |accessdate=28 July 2023}}</ref>:

* It should be without restriction in how it is "distributed" or used within an aggregate software distribution of many components.
* It should allow derivatives and modifications under the same terms as the original license, and that license should be portable with the derived or modified item.
* It should permit distribution of software, hardware, etc. built from modified source code or schematics.
* It should be without restriction in what person, organization, business, etc. is permitted to use it.
* Its license should not place restrictions on other software or hardware schematics distributed with the original item.
* Its license should not place technology-specific restriction on how the item is implemented.

Licenses vary widely from product to product, but broadly speaking, this all means if a commercial venture wants to run a significant chunk of its cloud operations on open-source technologies, it should be able to do so, as long as all license requirements are met. This same principle can be seen in early pushes for "open cloud," which emphasizes the need for "interoperability and portability across different clouds" through principles similar to the Open Source Initiative.<ref name="OlavsrudWhyOpen12">{{cite web |url=https://www.cio.com/article/284247/software-as-a-service-why-open-source-is-the-key-to-cloud-innovation.html |title=Why Open Source Is the Key to Cloud Innovation |author=Olavsrud, T. |work=CIO |date=13 April 2012 |accessdate=28 July 2023}}</ref>

One need look no further than to Linux, a family of open-source operating systems, to discover how open-source solutions have gained prevalence in cloud computing and other enterprises. More than 95 percent of the top one million web domains are served up using Linux-based servers.<ref name="PriceTheTrue18">{{cite web |url=https://www.makeuseof.com/tag/linux-market-share/ |title=The True Market Shares of Windows vs. Linux Compared |author=Price, D. |work=MakeUseOf |date=27 March 2018 |accessdate=28 July 2023}}</ref> In 2019, 96.3 percent of the top one billion enterprise business servers were running on Linux.<ref name="FBILinux20">{{cite web |url=https://www.fortunebusinessinsights.com/linux-operating-system-market-103037 |title=Linux Operating System Market Size, Share & Covid-19 Impact Analysis, By Distribution (Virtual Machines, Servers and Desktops), By End-use (Commercial/Enterprise and Individual), and Regional Forecast, 2020-2027 |publisher=Fortune Business Insights |date=June 2020 |accessdate=28 July 2023}}</ref> And Canonical's open-source Ubuntu Linux distribution has garnered a growing reputation in cloud computing and other enterprise scenarios due to its focus on security.<ref name="BurtLocking20">{{cite web |url=https://www.nextplatform.com/2020/04/23/locking-down-linux-for-the-enterprise/ |title=Locking Down Linux for the Enterprise |author=Burt, J. |work=The Next Platform |date=23 April 2020 |accessdate=28 July 2023}}</ref>

In fact, Microsoft shifted its formerly anti-Linux stance in the mid-2010s to a stronger embrace of the open-source OS. In 2014, it began offering several Linux distributions in its Azure public cloud platform and infrastructure and announced it would make server-side .NET open-source, while also adding Linux support to its SQL Server and joining the Linux Foundation in 2016.<ref name="OlavsrudMicrosoft16">{{cite web |url=https://www.cio.com/article/236651/microsoft-embraces-open-source-in-the-cloud-and-on-premises.html |title=Microsoft embraces open source in the cloud and on-premises |author=Olavsrud, T. |work=CIO |date=21 November 2016 |accessdate=28 July 2023}}</ref><ref name="IbanezMicro14">{{cite web |url=https://opensource.com/business/14/11/microsoft-dot-net-empower-open-source-communities |title=Microsoft gets on board with open source |author=Ibanez, L. |work=OpenSource.com |date=19 November 2014 |accessdate=28 July 2023}}</ref><ref name="BranscombeWhat20">{{cite web |url=https://www.techrepublic.com/article/what-is-microsoft-doing-with-linux-everything-you-need-to-know-about-its-plans-for-open-source/ |title=What is Microsoft doing with Linux? Everything you need to know about its plans for open source |author=Branscombe, M. |work=TechRepublic |date=02 December 2020 |accessdate=28 July 2023}}</ref> Why the philosophy change? As Microsoft's Database Systems Manager Rohan Kumar put it in 2016: "In the messy, real world of enterprise IT, hybrid shops are the norm and customers don't need or want vendors to force their hands when it comes to operating systems. Serving these customers means giving them flexibility."<ref name="OlavsrudMicrosoft16" /> That flexibility expanded to open sourcing SONiC, its network operating system, in 2017 and PowerShell, it's task automation and configuration tool, in 2018. Microsoft's Teams client was made available for Linux in 2019<ref name="BranscombeWhat20" />, and other elements of Microsoft Windows continue to see increased compatibility with Linux distributions such as Ubuntu.<ref name="BarnesNoMicro20">{{cite web |url=https://boxofcables.dev/no-microsoft-is-not-rebasing-windows-to-linux/ |title=No, Microsoft is not rebasing Windows to Linux |author=Barnes, H. |work=Box of Cables |date=11 October 2020 |accessdate=28 July 2023}}</ref>

Others in Big Tech have also made contributions to open-source cloud-based technologies. Take for example Kubernetes, originally a Google project that eventually was open-sourced in 2014.<ref name="MetzGoogle14">{{cite web |url=https://www.wired.com/2014/06/google-kubernetes/ |title=Google Open Sources Its Secret Weapon in Cloud Computing |author=Metz, C. |work=Wired |date=18 June 2014 |accessdate=28 July 2023}}</ref> The open-source container management tool soon after was donated to the Cloud Native Computing Foundation (CNCF) run by the Linux Foundation, "to help facilitate collaboration among developers and operators on common technologies for deploying cloud native applications and services."<ref name="LardinoisAsKub15">{{cite web |url=https://techcrunch.com/2015/07/21/as-kubernetes-hits-1-0-google-donates-technology-to-newly-formed-cloud-native-computing-foundation-with-ibm-intel-twitter-and-others/ |title=As Kubernetes Hits 1.0, Google Donates Technology To Newly Formed Cloud Native Computing Foundation |author=Lardinois, F. |work=Tech Crunch |date=21 July 2015 |accessdate=28 July 2023}}</ref> Since then, Kubernetes has become an integral part of many a cloud infrastructure due to its ability to provide lightweight, portable containerization—a complete runtime environment—to a bundle of applications run in the cloud. The software also manages resource scaling for applications, manages underlying infrastructure deployment, and allows for automatically mounting local and cloud storages.<ref name="TLFKubernetesAbout21">{{cite web |url=https://kubernetes.io/docs/concepts/overview/ |title=Overview |author=The Linux Foundation |work=Kubernetes Documentation |date=03 January 2023 |accessdate=28 July 2023}}</ref> The open-source nature of the code also allows an organization's developers to review Kubernetes’ code to ensure it's meeting security policies and regulations, as well as make their own tweaks as needed.<ref name="SarrelWhyCloud20">{{cite web |url=https://www.hpe.com/us/en/insights/articles/why-cloud-native-open-source-kubernetes-matters-2002.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20221218143215/https://www.hpe.com/us/en/insights/articles/why-cloud-native-open-source-kubernetes-matters-2002.html |title=Why cloud-native open source Kubernetes matters |author=Sarrel, M. |work=enterprise.nxt |publisher=Hewlett Packard Enterprise |date=04 February 2020 |archivedate=18 December 2022 |accessdate=28 July 2023}}</ref> Writing for Hewlett Packard in 2020, entrepreneur Matt Sarrel estimated that some 70 to 85 percent of containerized applications are doing it on top of some version of Kubernetes.<ref name="SarrelWhyCloud20" />

Finally, other open-source software tools complement cloud computing efforts. For example, applications like Apache CloudStack, Cloudify, ManageIQ, and OpenStack put open-source cloud management in the hands of a cloud-ops team.<ref name="LinthicumFour20">{{cite web |url=https://techbeacon.com/enterprise-it/4-essential-open-source-tools-cloud-management |title=4 essential open-source tools for cloud management |author=Linthicum, D. |work=TechBeacon |date=2020 |accessdate=28 July 2023}}</ref> Eucalyptus is "open-source software for building AWS-compatible private and hybrid clouds."<ref name="EucHome">{{cite web |url=https://www.eucalyptus.cloud/ |title=Eucalyptus |publisher=Appscale Systems |accessdate=28 July 2023}}</ref> Keylime is a security tool that allows users "to check for themselves that the cloud storing their data is as secure as the cloud computer owners say it is."<ref name="MillarLab19">{{cite web |url=https://www.ll.mit.edu/news/laboratory-staff-develop-new-cybersecurity-solutions-cloud-computing |title=Laboratory staff develop new cybersecurity solutions for cloud computing |author=Millar, M. |publisher=Lincoln Laboratory - MIT |date=27 August 2019 |accessdate=28 July 2023}}</ref> Rook is a "cloud-native storage orchestrator" that provides a variety of storage management tools to allow cloud developers to "natively integrate with cloud-native environments."<ref name="GCoreDeploy23">{{cite web |url=https://gcore.com/learning/deploying-highly-scalable-cloud-storage-with-rook-part-1-ceph-storage/ |title=Deploying highly scalable cloud storage with Rook, Part 1 (Ceph Storage) |publisher=GCore |date=27 March 2023 |accessdate=14 August 2023}}</ref> And the OpenStack project, with its collection of software components enabling cloud infrastructure, can't be forgotten.<ref name="OpenStack">{{cite web |url=https://www.openstack.org/ |title=OpenStack |publisher=Open Infrastructure Foundation |accessdate=28 July 2023}}</ref> These and other open-source tools continue to drive how cloud computing is implemented, managed, and monitored, while highlighting the importance of the open source paradigm to cloud computing.