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Overview of the cannabis industry in the United States

The following is a brief overview of the cannabis industry in the United States. It's meant to give a quick and concise review of where cannabis use, regulation, testing, and research have been and where they are now. Many of the topics touched upon here will be expanded upon later in this guide.

Brief history of cannabis in the U.S.

Cannabis is a rapid-growing, flowering plant that has been used for centuries for industrial, medicinal, and recreational purposes. The plant includes three species or subspecies: indica, ruderalis, and sativa.[1] Both industrial hemp and recreational marijuana are derived from cannabis plants, but with important differences in biochemical composition. Hemp — which has historically been used to create clothing, food and feed, paper, textiles, and other industrial items — tends to have lower levels of the psychoactive component tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and higher levels of the non-psychoactive component cannabidiol (CBD).[2][3] Some cannabis strains have intentionally been bred to produce low levels of THC, while others have been bred with the intent to maximize the psychoactive component.

Cannabis cultivation began in England's Jamestown colony of America in earnest around 1611, via formal orders. Several years later those orders turned into a royal decree, enacted by the Virginia Company, asking colonists to grow 100 hemp plants for export to England.[3] Colonial American continued its growth, use, and exportation of hemp, even beyond the foundation of the United States. During that time, growers undoubtedly were using the female plant (which flowers and has higher levels of THC) to treat aches and pains as well as enjoy it recreationally. By the time of the U.S. Civil War arrived in the 1860s, however,the growth and use of industrial hemp declined as increased cotton and wood use took away much of the profitability of hemp.[3] Around the same time, local governments began recognizing tonics, tinctures, and extracts from cannabis plants as potentially dangerous substances, labeling them as hypnotics, narcotics, or even poisons.[4] In the early twentieth century, U.S. labeling and prescription laws — such as the the Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906 at the federal level as well as various state laws — saw further restrictions put on cannabis, effectively culminating in the Marihuana Tax Act of 1937 and the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act of 1938. With the passage of those acts, hemp and marijuana essentially became illegal, controlled substances.[5][6][7]

State efforts to decriminalize marijuana were somewhat successful in the early 1970s, though progress towards that goal slowed again with the Reagan Administration's war on drugs.[8] Progress picked up steam again in the late 1990s into the 2000s, particularly in states such as California, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Washington, and Colorado.

As of January 2017, twenty-eight U.S. states have approved some sort of broad decriminalization or legalization of medicinal and/or recreational marijuana.[9] Industrial hemp has also been addressed in some regard, with 16 states having legalized commercialized industrial help production, with federal removal of hemp containing no more than 0.3 percent THC from the controlled substances list.[10] However, cannabis containing more than 0.3 percent THC remains remains a Schedule I controlled substance, as determined by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration.[11] This federal classification continues to clash with changing state laws and regulations at an increasing pace, creating both opportunities and difficulties for involved citizens at all points along the industrial, economic, and social chain.

Medical and recreational use

In its 2016 World Drug Report, the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime estimated that 3.8 percent of the global population — roughly 183 million people — used cannabis in 2014.[12] Focusing in on the United States, the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) estimated that in 2014 the country had 35.1 million past-year marijuana users.[13] It's not clear if that total includes legal medical marijuana users, which numbered roughly 2.4 million that year according to non-profit ProCon.org.[14] When compared to SAMHSA's estimate of 11.1 million users in 1997[15], it becomes clear that reported marijuana use has increased in the United States over the past few decades, whether it's through legalization efforts or otherwise. Some have pointed to the expansion of medical marijuana laws acting as gateways for increased adolescent use; however, multiple studies have have tried to but failed to find such a cause and effect relationship.[16][17][18] Regardless, with 28 U.S. states now having some legalization law on the books[9], the number of marijuana users isn't likely to decrease any time soon.

Cultivation and distribution

On the Federal level, marijuana is considered a Schedule I drug and remains illegal.[19][11] (Federal regulation of cannabis is discussed in detail later under "Regulatory scheme.") This doesn't leave a lot of options for researchers and the like. In fact, the only federally-granted grow operation (grow-op) as of this writing is the University of Mississippi, contracted by the National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) to grow marijuana for approved research studies.[20][21][22][23][24] (That may change for the better in 2017; see the next section on testing and research for more.)

On the state level, the growth and distribution of cannabis depends on state law, which can vary from state to state. This topic is discussed further in the "Regulatory scheme" section, but here are the key points:

  • Federal law makes it illegal to cultivate and distribute marijuana, even in a state that has legalized such activity. However, while there's no legally-binding guarantee cultivators and distributors won't be pursued by federal law enforcement, they can limit their chances of such federal enforcement by following the letter of state and local law.
  • Despite some of the variance of state laws, one aspect largely remains consistent: it's illegal to distribute marijuana over state lines, even when it's between two states with similar laws.[25]
  • Regulations on the personal and commercial cultivation and distribution of marijuana vary significantly from state to state. Some states make a limited pool of available licenses available; others don't offer them or instead have specific alternative treatment or non-profit centers that handle growth and distribution.[26][27][28]

Testing and research

One area that continues to expand — while taking advantage of new scientific research and techniques — is the laboratory sphere, particularly in research, regulation, and standardization activities. According to July 2016 testimony from Susan R.B. Weiss, Division Director at the National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), the National Institutes of Health (NIH) alone supported 281 cannabinoid research projects totally more than $111 million in 2015.[22]

While the research, analysis, and processing of cannabis has been ongoing for centuries[3], it wasn't until 1896 that Wood et al. conducted one of the first documented chemical experiments to determine the constituents of cannabis. Several years later, the researchers were able to correctly identify the extracted and isolated cannabinol from the exuded resin of Indian hemp as C21H26O2.[29] As of mid-2015, 104 of the more than 750 constituents of Cannabis sativa have been identified as cannabinoids[30], "a class of diverse chemical compounds that act on cannabinoid receptors in cells that modulate neurotransmitter release in the brain."[31]

Yet in the United States, when it comes to 1. enacting the broad level of testing required to ensure public safety — whether it be medical, recreational, or industrial use of cannabis — and 2. researching and better understanding the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics (medical use and benefit) of cannabinoids in the human population, many have argued that laboratory testing of cannabis is still in its infancy[32][33][34][35][36][37] and evidence-based research of marijuana continues to be slow and bogged down in regulation.[20][21][22][23][24] In regards to the first issue, as some form of legalization continues to sweep across states, regulators, users, and industry are recognizing the need for improved standardization of the production and testing of medical and recreational marijuana; the current state of improper labeling and potentially harmful contaminants[32][33][34][37] will only serve to hinder the industry. To the second issue, some within the federal government seem to recognize the roadblocks to improved evidence-based research and are working to slowly improve how researchers can legally acquire and test marijuana in the U.S.[22][23][38]

An excerpt from the previously mentioned testimony of NIDA's Dr. Weiss summates this well:

The current state of the research on marijuana and its constituent cannabinoids suggests the potential for therapeutic value for a number of conditions; however, more evidence is needed before marijuana or cannabinoid products (beyond those already approved through the Food and Drug Administration [FDA]) are ready for medical use. Promising preclinical findings do not always prove to be clinically relevant, and even fewer lead to new treatments. Moreover, clinical studies of sufficient quality to meet FDA standards for drug approval are currently lacking for most conditions. Among the factors that impact this research are the specific statutory requirements and treaty obligations that govern research on marijuana. NIH is working closely with the Office of National Drug Control Policy (ONDCP), the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA), and FDA to explore ways to streamline these processes to facilitate research.[22]

In the meantime, government entities such as the National Institutes of Health and non-profits such as jCanna push forward with scientific conferences, summits, and roundtables that bring scientists and interested parties together to share existing knowledge and testing techniques.[39][40]

Other areas of concern

When examining the current U.S. cannabis industry, it's important to note a few additional areas of concern that impact it, again tightly linked to federal regulations (which are discussed extensively in the next section): banking and advertising. Issues related to both of these topics continue to limit how state-based grow-ops (grow operations), dispensaries, and testing laboratories are funded and operated.

Banking

Since the U.S. federal government still considers marijuana to be illegal, by extension banks and credit unions — which are regulated by a patchwork collection of federal (and state) laws — put themselves into potentially dangerous territory by accepting money from depositors engaging in federally illegal activities; the bank can be punished by federal institutions such as that Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC).[41] In an attempt to ease concerns of industry and banks in states that had implements legalization efforts, the Treasury Department's Financial Crimes Enforcement Network (FinCEN) released a guidance document in February 2014 that "does not grant immunity from prosecution or civil penalties to banks that serve legal marijuana businesses" but rather "directs prosecutors and regulators to give priority to cases only where financial institutions have failed to adhere to the guidance."[42][43] However, the guidance has remained just that: guidance; it doesn't prevent federal law enforcement or regulating agencies from taking action. An August 2016 attempt to reclassify marijuana into a lower classification than Schedule I failed[11][23], keeping the FinCEN guidance in place as a recommendation for how federal authorities should enforce existing law.

According to an Associated Press report in April 2016, the guidance has had some sort of impact, with banks and credit unions willing to handle any money associated with marijuana increasing from 51 in March 2014 to 301 in March 2016.[44] However, this hasn't prevented those in states with newly minted medical and recreational marijuana legalization laws from being worried about how cannabis money will be handled, particularly with the new Trump administration taking the reigns of government. California, which in November 2016 legalized recreational use of marijuana beginning in 2018, has already petitioned that administration to clarify it's policy early on. "We have a year to develop a system that works in California and which addresses the many issues that exist as a result of the federal-state legal conflict," wrote California Treasurer John Chiang to Trump. "Uncertainty about the position of your administration creates even more of a challenge."[45]

Similar legalization changes in Massachusetts prompted its senator Elizabeth Warren, along with nine other senators, to write to FinCEN in early 2017 requesting even clearer, more friendly guidance for marijuana vendors.[46] Yet it remains to be seen if entities outside of grow-ops and dispensaries will see banking relief. In particular, testing laboratories continue to struggle with managing cash flow and acquiring bank lending for their operations[47][48][49], causing some to believe consolidation of such labs will occur before the industry can really even take off.[47][50]

Advertising

Advertising of marijuana products is another area of concern, though the regulations and laws regarding it are less clear. When it comes to television and radio broadcasting and its associated advertising, a federally-granted broadcasting license stands to be lost care of the Federal Communications Commission (FCC). The trouble is, it's not clear if the FCC would act against broadcasters; the FCC hasn't issued guidance in the same way FinCEN has. "I don’t think anybody knows, and that’s the problem," said California Broadcasters Association President Joe Berry in an August 2016 report published by the The Sacramento Bee. "Without a clear indication [from the FCC on marijuana advertising], the vast majority of broadcasters are going to stay away from this issue."[51] California, of course, made recreational marijuana legal, and its proposed law sought to address the issue of advertising, including "a provision restricting TV and radio ads so they are not targeted to minors," while also addressing the authority of the FCC to enforce regardless.[52]

Other forms of advertising also remain problematic. In late November 2015, the United States Postal Service (USPS) out of Portland, Oregon published its interpretation of federal law regarding "mailpieces containing advertisements about marijuana," regarding it illegal to distribute certain forms of marijuana advertisement, citing 21 U.S. Code § 843(c).[53] The U.S. Patent and Trademark Office (PTO) has, controversially, also gotten involved, stating that trademarking of a "brand controlled substances or related paraphernalia that are illegal to possess or sell" legally doesn't fit within a trademark's commercial viability because at the federal level marijuana is not legal for commerce.[54] (Legal experts such as Dariush Adli suggest "creative ways" of getting around this, from registering trademarks in multiple states to registering "non-cannabis merchandise in order to generate some federal protection for their mark."[55]) Even billboards are an issue, with state lawmakers proposing new regulations on marijuana advertising on them weeks after the state passed its recreational legalization laws.[56] And state laws, such as those found in Alaska, can create their own set of challenges in staying legal with marijuana advertising.[57]

Despite all this, at least one financial consultant believes marijuana marketing will become more prevalent: GreenWave Advisors' Matthew Karnes estimates spending will jump to $75 million by 2021.[58]

Regulatory scheme

Federal

On October 27, 1970, the Controlled Substances Act put into place five schedules or classifications of drugs that would be regulated in some fashion, and drugs were initially classified into those schedules followed by annual reviews and updates.[19] Marijuana was initially placed under Schedule I[19] and remains there today.[11][23][59] As a Schedule I drug, the federal government is indicating marijuana has[19]:

  • "a high potential for abuse";
  • "no currently accepted medical use in treatment in the United States"; and
  • "a lack of accepted safety for use of the drug or other substance under medical supervision".

Then came the Reorganization Plan No. 2 of 1973, which took existing enforcement entities such as the Bureau of Narcotics and Dangerous Drugs and placed them into a new, unified entity called the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA).[60][61] Then President Richard Nixon said of the transition[60]:

The enforcement work could benefit significantly, however, from consolidation of our anti-drug forces under a single unified command. Right now the Federal Government is fighting the war on drug abuse under a distinct handicap, for its efforts are those of a loosely confederated alliance facing a resourceful, elusive, worldwide enemy.

The DEA was given numerous responsibilities, including but not limited to the development of enforcement strategy; investigation and prosecution preparation of suspects violating federal law; regulation of drugs and other controlled substances; and coordination and cooperation with state and local government drug enforcement efforts.[60] Since then the DEA has taken various steps — with guidance from the Food and Drug Administration (FDA)[62] — to regulate and enforce the availability and use of controlled substances such as marijuana. As the decriminalization and legalization efforts of states have increased in past decades, this has brought federal regulation and enforcement conflicts to those states that have decriminalized and legalized, largely due to the federal government's insistence in maintaining marijuana as a Schedule I drug.[38][63]

Numerous changes in policy and controversies have occurred since the Controlled Substance Act and DEA were implemented, including a 22-year-long effort by the National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws (NORML) to have marijuana rescheduled (1972–1994).[64] However, the following talking points represent the most recent important federal-level changes and rulings that impact federal regulation of and enforcement of laws relating to cannabis.

October 19, 2009: The Ogden Memorandum

Deputy Attorney General David W. Ogden issued a memorandum "intended solely as a guide to the exercise of investigative and prosecutorial discretion" in regards to state-based laws allowing medical cannabis.[65] The guidance essentially told U.S. attorneys to not prosecute those entities complying fully with state cannabis laws. Researchers generally agree that this memo acted "as a catalyst for expansion of [state-sanctioned and gray market] cannabis supply in states with poorly defined regulations," though the degree to which it influenced such growth remains poorly documented and requires further investigation.[66] To be sure, it likely had some effect, as the number of licensed patients using medical marijuana in the state of Colorado increased from 4,800 in 2008 to 41,000 in 2009, and operating dispensaries jumped to more than 900 by mid-2010.[67]

June 29, 2011: The Cole Memorandum 1

Deputy Attorney General James M. Cole issued a memo as a follow-up to the Ogden Memo, muddying the waters in the process. While stating that the stance of efficiently using department resources as outlined in the Ogden Memo still stood, Cole also made it clear that large grow-ops that didn't qualify as "caregivers" had sprung up since.[68] The language of the memo essentially said "get off your butts and nail those suckers."[69] Cambron et al.[66] and Fairman[70] suggest this memo had some impact as evidenced by declines in cannabis patient registration from 2011–2013 in Colorado, Michigan, and Montana.

August 29, 2013: The Cole Memorandum 2

Deputy Attorney General James M. Cole issued a follow-up memo to his original two years later, following 1. on the heels of then President Obama reiterating publicly that the Department of Justice (DoJ) was to not focus in unnecessarily on states that have passed legalization laws and 2. Washington and Colorado legalizing recreational use of cannabis.[66] The second memorandum sought to reduce the emphasis on the size of the grow-op and increase emphasis on — by a case-by-case basis — "whether the operation is demonstrably in compliance with a strong and effective state regulatory system."[71] The memo also clarified specific cases where federal enforcement would be warranted, including distribution to minors, interstate transport, and preventing drugged driving (though it didn't state how). Generally speaking, states saw little federal intervention except in the case of state law being broken or requiring dispensaries to move further away from schools.[72][66] Despite the memo, some attorneys continued to see Cole Memorandum 2 as nothing more than unclear language that had no legal weight for anxious growers and distributors in states where cannabis was legalized.[69]

December 16, 2014 to current: Rohrabacher-Farr Amendment

A tenuous truce of sorts arrived with the passage of the Rohrabacher-Farr Amendment in December 2014. The amendment prohibited the DoJ from spending funds to prevent or enforce against state laws that allow for medical marijuana cultivation, distribution, and use, particularly when those actions are performed consistent with state laws.[73] Before being passed in December 2014, the amendment had actually been introduced and defeated six times in the previous 10 years.[74] The DoJ later went on to challenge the amendment on several occasions, from U.S. v. Marin Alliance for Medical Marijuana in 2015 to a collection of 10 different cases from California and Washington in 2016. In both cases, the courts ruled against the DoJ, setting precedent against further department action.[75][76]

One of the downsides of Rohrabacher-Farr is that it has essentially acted as a short-term rider attached to several spending bills since December 2014. As of January 2017, it was last renewed through April 2017; however, with the new Trump administration coalescing — including Trump's demonstrably anti-drug U.S. Attorney General nominee Jeff Sessions — some in the industry are concerned the amendment may not be renewed, opening the door again for the DoJ to implement stronger enforcement.[9][77][78][79]

August 11, 2016: DEA denies petition to reschedule marijuana out of Schedule I

A request made by two governors and a psychiatric nurse practitioner to the DEA asking it to reschedule marijuana into any other schedule other than Schedule I was denied, as had been done with previous attempts in 2009 and 2011.[11][23][59] Reasons included known health issues such as prenatal exposure and negative impacts on several biological systems as well as limited research and new drug applications.[38] At the same time, however, the DEA also recognized the need for further research and the lack of legal marijuana sources for researchers, publishing a policy statement stating intent "to increase the lawful supply of marijuana available to researchers."[80]

State medical and recreational

As of January 2017, 28 states have some sort of broad decriminalization or legalization laws for cannabis on the books.[9] In October 1973, Oregon became the first state to enact decriminalization laws for marijuana, imposing a $100 fine for possession of less than an ounce. Eleven other states followed a similar path within five years.[81] The next wave of changes began with the passage of medical marijuana legislation in California — the Compassionate Use Act — in November 1996, followed by similar legislation in Oregon and Alaska in 1998, Maine in 1999, and Colorado, Hawaii, and Nevada in 2000.[66][82] Other states continued to add decriminalization and medical marijuana laws in the 2000s. But it wasn't until 2012 that Colorado and Washington became the first states to make recreational marijuana legal, followed by Alaska, Oregon, and the District of Columbia in 2014.[66] Colorado, Maine, Massachusetts, and Nevada followed suit in 2016.[83]

As shown by Cambron et al. in 2016 (before the November election results)[66], dispensaries, possession limits, and interstate ID card acceptance can vary significantly among affected states. California, Colorado, Michigan, Oregon, and Washington lead in number of dispensaries; Massachusetts, Oregon, and Washington in maximum possession limits; and Arizona plus five others allowed ID cards from other states. Yet allowed dispensaries can number in the single digits, possession limits can be as low as one ounce, and numerous states still don't honor ID cards from other states.[66]

Then there's the matter of state differences in testing, enforcement, advertising allowances, etc. It helps to turn to professional associations and organizations — who often lead the charge for improved, more relevant standards — to sort through the variances. The Association of Public Health Laboratories (APHL), for example, has published its Guidance for State Medical Cannabis Testing Programs to help sort through the confusing tangle of existing testing laws, where they exist. They exemplify this variation of law in their document[84]:

As with most programs in the United States, every state takes a different approach. For example as of January 2016, New Jersey’s Public Health & Environmental Laboratories only test cannabis plant material. Just across the Hudson, however, New York’s Public Health Laboratory will not be testing any plant material, only cannabis extracts. In addition, the New York Department of Health will provide an oversight role for commercial cannabis laboratories that are licensed by the federal Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) and approved for testing cannabis products. On the other hand, New Jersey state government does all testing in-house for the medical cannabis program.

As such, unlike their federal counterpart, it's difficult to make broad generalizations about cannabis regulations and their enforcement in the states. It becomes even more difficult when examining states that don't have clear, well-considered regulations or strong enforcement powers. Cambron et al. emphasized this issue in regards to the supply side, saying: "States without clearly defined regulations for medical cannabis supply have fostered gray markets for cannabis whereby individuals without documented medical conditions are able to easily obtain medical cannabis authorizations. This scenario has created substantial challenges for law enforcement in multiple states."[66]

Cole et al. argue that in the end, it will take pressure on the federal government "to set up policy guardrails to steer state regulatory systems" in a more unified and safe direction. Drugged driving, use by minors, interstate distribution, relation to crime and firearms, consumer safety, and advertising are all issues the government should be tackling towards that goal, they say. Not that states aren't addressing these regulatory concerns; they are, but not in consistent ways.[85]

In the meantime, scientists and government officials are doing what they can to harmonize standards and regulations. For example, state officials from Colorado, New Mexico, Oregon, and Washington teamed up to give a presentation called "State Regulatory Approaches to Cannabis Testing, Operations and Product Logistics" at the July 2016 Cannabis Quality, Strategies and Solutions Summit. That presentation focused on the harmonization of regulatory standards and frameworks across states, as well as discussions of what scientific efforts are required to support those standards and frameworks.[86] Additionally, organizations such as Americans for Safe Access Foundation (ASAF), American Herbal Pharmacopoeia (AHP), American Herbal Products Association (AHPA), and the American Oil Chemists' Society (AOCS) have been developing standards, methods, and certifications for analysis, extraction, labeling, and laboratory operations surrounding medical marijuana.[87][88][89][90][91]

Laboratory testing of cannabis

The overview mentioned how regulators, users, and industry are calling for improved standardization of the production and testing of medical and recreational marijuana. Without proper testing of medical and recreational marijuana, several issues are bound to arise[32][33][34][37][91][92]:

  • label claims may not match actual contents;
  • contaminants linger, causing illness or even death;
  • chemical properties and medicinal benefits of specific strains and their unique cannabinoid-turpene profiles can't be isolated; and
  • research on potential therapeutic qualities can't be replicated, hindering scientific progress.

In 2011 — a year before any U.S. state had enacted broad legalization of recreational marijuana — California NORML reported that its assessment of analytical cannabis testing laboratories' accuracy found that while California labs broadly reached +/- 20 percent consistency from a replicate sample, three out of ten provided unfavorable results on at least half of their tests. Similar wide-ranging discrepancies were also found among edibles, extracts, and tinctures, and NORML found that none of the labs could reach two decimal points precision of cannabinoid results despite laboratory claims stating otherwise.[92] Another report out of Washington State in January 2015, not long after recreational marijuana sales to the public (requiring accredited lab testing prior) began[93], found blind tests of recreational marijuana at dispensaries could range as much as 7.5 percent in accuracy from its corresponding label.[33] Further issues in 2016 with alleged partiality by some Washington testing laboratories prompted emergency proficiency testing rules to be enacted.[94][95] (Proficiency testing essentially requires a laboratory in question to test a sample with known properties, and then those results are compared to those of a neutral third-party lab testing the same sample.)

These discrepancies and deficiencies highlight the growing need for homogenization of testing methods and procedures, if not nationally at least across an entire state. Such homogenization would, in theory, not only positively affect the quality of product but also provide greater consumer confidence that label and product match. As Marketing Director Scott Kuzdzal of Shimadzu pointed out during a January 2017 webinar on analytic testing of cannabis, poor sample preparation, lack of thorough testing, and the manual process itself — which can introduce user error, particularly when good laboratory practices aren’t used — all can contribute to discrepancies between label and product.[96] When dispensaries, edible manufacturers, and supplement companies perform insufficient lab testing or overstate claims on labels, it reduces consumer confidence, and both state and federal authorities — including the FDA — have to interject.[94][95][97]

As was mentioned at the end of the previous section on state regulation, efforts to improve testing methods and procedures, with the goal of seeing the best of them become standards, are ongoing. Where are we now, and where are we going? Before we can go there, we first need to briefly look at what aspects of cannabis are being analyzed.

Analytical aspects of cannabis

As of mid-2015, researchers have identified 104 of the more than 750 constituents of Cannabis sativa as cannabinoids[30], active chemical compounds that act in a similar way to compounds our body naturally produces. Many of our body's cells have cannabinoid receptors capable of modulating neurotransmitter release in the brain and other areas.[31] The plant's cannabinoids vary, with each bonding to specific receptors in our body, providing differing effects. From a theoretical and medical standpoint, crafting a strain of cannabis that has specific cannabinoids for a particular malady, while also carefully reproducing the grow conditions to consistently make that strain in the future, is a realizable but difficult goal.[98]

Methods and standards

Reports

Lab equipment used

Software

Testing labs and pricing info

Future of cannabis testing and market trends

Resources

Reference material




Law and regulation





Publications and blogs

Standards and guidance



Testing and accreditation







Conferences and trade shows




Associations and organizations


Producers and vendors

Hardware vendors

Software vendors

LIMS

Seed-to-sale

LIMSpec

References

  1. ↑ "Genus: Cannabis L.". U.S. National Plant Germplasm System. U.S. Department of Agriculture. 1 January 2011. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxonomygenus.aspx?id=2034. Retrieved 20 January 2017. 
  2. ↑ Swanson, T.E. (2015). "Controlled Substances Chaos: The Department of Justice's New Policy Position on Marijuana and What It Means for Industrial Hemp Farming in North Dakota" (PDF). North Dakota Law Review 90 (3): 599–622. https://law.und.edu/_files/docs/ndlr/pdf/issues/90/3/90ndlr599.pdf. 
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 Deitch, R. (2003). Hemp – American History Revisited. New York City: Algora Publishing. pp. 232. ISBN 9780875862262. 
  4. ↑ U.S. Senate (15 February 1860). "Senate". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/1860/02/16/news/senate-88150825.html. Retrieved 20 January 2017. 
  5. ↑ Walton, R.F. (1938). Marijuana, America’s New Drug Problem. Philadelphia: B. Lippincott. p. 37. 
  6. ↑ Woodward, W.C.; House of Representatives, Committee on Ways and Means (4 May 1937). "Taxation of Marihuana". Schaffer Library of Drug Policy. http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/hemp/taxact/woodward.htm. Retrieved 20 January 2017. 
  7. ↑ Cavers, D.F. (1939). "The Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act of 1938: Its Legislative History and its Substantive Provisions". Law and Contemporary Problems 6: 2–42. http://scholarship.law.duke.edu/lcp/vol6/iss1/2/. 
  8. ↑ Meier, K.J. (2016). The Politics of Sin: Drugs, Alcohol and Public Policy: Drugs, Alcohol and Public Policy. Taylor & Francis. p. 58. ISBN 9781315287270. https://books.google.com/books?id=J4wYDQAAQBAJ&pg=PT58. 
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 Steinmetz, K. (8 November 2016). "These States Just Legalized Marijuana". Time. Time, Inc. http://time.com/4559278/marijuana-election-results-2016/. Retrieved 20 January 2017. 
  10. ↑ "State Industrial Hemp Statuses". National Conference of State Legislatures. 19 August 2016. http://www.ncsl.org/research/agriculture-and-rural-development/state-industrial-hemp-statutes.aspx. Retrieved 20 January 2017. 
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 Leger, D.L. (11 August 2016). "Marijuana to remain illegal under federal law, DEA says". USA. Today. Gannett Company. http://www.usatoday.com/story/news/2016/08/11/dea-marijuana-remains-illegal-under-federal-law/88550804/. Retrieved 20 January 2017. 
  12. ↑ United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (May 2016). "World Drug Report 2016" (PDF). United Nations. ISBN 9789210578622. https://www.unodc.org/doc/wdr2016/WORLD_DRUG_REPORT_2016_web.pdf. Retrieved 27 January 2017. 
  13. ↑ Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (8 September 2016). "Results from The 2015 National Survey on Drug Use And Health: Detailed Tables". In RTI International (PDF). p. 178. https://www.samhsa.gov/data/sites/default/files/NSDUH-DetTabs-2015/NSDUH-DetTabs-2015/NSDUH-DetTabs-2015.pdf. Retrieved 27 January 2017. 
  14. ↑ "Number of Legal Medical Marijuana Patients (as of Oct. 27, 2014)". ProCon.org. 27 October 2014. http://medicalmarijuana.procon.org/view.resource.php?resourceID=006445. Retrieved 31 January 2017. 
  15. ↑ Rabkin, N.J. (July 1999). Drug Control: DEA's Strategies and Operations in the 1990s. U.S. General Accounting Office. pp. 172. ISBN 9780788184833. https://books.google.com/books?id=ZvzBdlolKrQC&pg=PA16. 
  16. ↑ Hasin, D.S.; Wall, M.; Keyes, K.M. et al. (2015). "Medical marijuana laws and adolescent marijuana use in the USA from 1991 to 2014: Results from annual, repeated cross-sectional surveys". The Lancet Psychiatry 2 (7): 601–608. doi:10.1016/S2215-0366(15)00217-5. 
  17. ↑ Wall, M.M.; Poh, E.; Cerdá, M. (2011). "Adolescent Marijuana Use from 2002 to 2008: Higher in States with Medical Marijuana Laws, Cause Still Unclear". Annals of Epidemiology 21 (9): 714–716. doi:10.1016/j.annepidem.2011.06.001. PMC PMC3358137. PMID 21820632. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3358137. 
  18. ↑ Harper, S.; Strumpf, E.C.; Kaufman, J.S. (2012). "Do Medical Marijuana Laws Increase Marijuana Use? Replication Study and Extension". Annals of Epidemiology 22 (3): 207–212. doi:10.1016/j.annepidem.2011.12.002. PMID 22285867. 
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 19.3 "§812. Schedules of controlled substances". United States Code. U.S. Government Publishing Office. 3 January 2012. https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/USCODE-2011-title21/html/USCODE-2011-title21-chap13-subchapI-partB-sec812.htm. Retrieved 27 January 2017. 
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 Bajaj, V. (30 July 2014). "How the Federal Government Slows Marijuana Research". Taking Note: The New York Times. The New York Times Company. https://takingnote.blogs.nytimes.com/2014/07/30/how-the-federal-government-slows-marijuana-research/. Retrieved 25 January 2017. 
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  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 22.3 22.4 Weiss, S.R.B. (13 July 2016). "Testimony from Susan R.B. Weiss, Ph.D. on The State of the Science on the Therapeutic Potential of Marijuana and Cannabinoids before Judiciary Committee". ASL Testimony. U.S. Department of Health & Human Services. https://www.hhs.gov/about/agencies/asl/testimony/2016-09/the-state-of-the-science-on-the-therapeutic-potential-of-marijuana-and-cannabinoids/index.html. Retrieved 25 January 2017. 
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  25. ↑ Belville, R. (28 November 2016). "Can I Take Marijuana From One Legal State To Another?". Weed News. WN Media, LLC. http://www.weednews.co/can-i-take-marijuana-from-one-legal-state-to-another/. Retrieved 31 January 2017. 
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  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 33.2 33.3 Bush, E. (18 February 2015). "World’s strongest weed? Potency testing challenged". The Seattle Times. The Seattle Times Company. http://www.seattletimes.com/seattle-news/worldrsquos-strongest-weed-potency-testing-challenged/. Retrieved 25 January 2017. 
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  36. ↑ Crombie, N. (25 July 2016). "Marijuana labs prepping for regulation and oversight; no lab licenses issued yet". The Oregonian. Oregon Live LLC. http://www.oregonlive.com/marijuana/index.ssf/2016/07/marijuana_labs_prepping_for_st.html. Retrieved 25 January 2017. 
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  38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 38.2 Romza-Kutz, D.; Roth V, F. (15 August 2016). "The silver lining in the DEA’s refusal to reclassify cannabis". Tracking Cannabis. Thompson Coburn LLP. http://www.thompsoncoburn.com/insights/blogs/tracking-cannabis/post/2016-08-15/the-silver-lining-in-the-dea-s-refusal-to-reclassify-cannabis. Retrieved 25 January 2017. 
  39. ↑ "The Marijuana and Cannabinoids: A Neuroscience Research Summit". National Institutes of Health. 23 March 2016. http://apps1.seiservices.com/nih/mj/2016/. Retrieved 25 January 2017. 
  40. ↑ "Cannabis Science Conference". jCanna, Inc. https://www.cannabisscienceconference.com/. Retrieved 25 January 2017. 
  41. ↑ Hill, J.A. (2015). "Banks, Marijuana, and Federalism". Case Western Reserve Federal Law Review 65 (3): 597–647. http://scholarlycommons.law.case.edu/caselrev/vol65/iss3/7. 
  42. ↑ Kovaleski, S.F. (14 February 2014). "U.S. Issues Marijuana Guidelines for Banks". The New York Times. The New York Times Corporation. https://www.nytimes.com/2014/02/15/us/us-issues-marijuana-guidelines-for-banks.html. Retrieved 25 January 2017. 
  43. ↑ Financial Crimes Enforcement Network (14 February 2014). "BSA Expectations Regarding Marijuana-Related Businesses". U.S. Department of the Treasury. https://www.fincen.gov/resources/statutes-regulations/guidance/bsa-expectations-regarding-marijuana-related-businesses. Retrieved 25 January 2017. 
  44. ↑ Hansen, K.; Johnson, G. (20 April 2016). "Banking woes easing for some legal pot businesses". Associated Press: The Big Story. Associated Press. http://bigstory.ap.org/article/804ae396daab4ba98f814b186f872ef6/banking-woes-easing-some-legal-pot-businesses. Retrieved 25 January 2017. 
  45. ↑ Blood, M.R. (2 December 2016). "California treasurer asks Trump for guidance on pot, banking". Associated Press: The Big Story. Associated Press. http://bigstory.ap.org/article/d54ea614db274238986a8e0d77dbb147/california-treasurer-asks-trump-guidance-pot-banking. Retrieved 25 January 2017. 
  46. ↑ LeBlanc, S. (2 January 2017). "US Sen. Warren seeks to pull pot shops out of banking limbo". Las Vegas Sun. Greenspun Media Group. https://lasvegassun.com/news/2017/jan/02/us-sen-warren-seeks-to-pull-pot-shops-out-of-banki/. Retrieved 25 January 2017. 
  47. ↑ 47.0 47.1 Lampach, D. (20 November 2013). "Q&A With CEO of Steep Hill Halent: US Cannabis Testing Market Could Hit $40M by 2016". Marijuana Business Daily. Anne Holland Ventures, Inc. https://mjbizdaily.com/qa-with-steep-hill-lab-ceo-david-lampach-cannabis-testing-market-could-hit-40m-in-2-years/. Retrieved 25 January 2017. 
  48. ↑ Martin, R.W. (May 2016). "Profitability in the Cannabis Laboratory Industry". Association of Commercial Cannabis Laboratories. Association of Commercial Cannabis Laboratories. http://www.cacannabislabs.com/. Retrieved 25 January 2017. 
  49. ↑ Tulsi, B.B. (3 October 2016). "A Bright Future for Cannabis Testing Services". Lab Manager. LabX Media Group. http://www.labmanager.com/research-specific-labs/2016/10/today-s-cannabis-research-market. Retrieved 25 January 2017. 
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  51. ↑ White, J.B. (17 August 2016). "If California legalizes pot, will TV ads be far behind?". The Sacramento Bee. The McClatchy Company. http://www.sacbee.com/news/politics-government/capitol-alert/article96040082.html. Retrieved 25 January 2017. 
  52. ↑ McGreevy, P. (30 October 2016). "Q&A: Proposition 64 would legalize recreational use of marijuana though it's illegal under federal law. How will that work?". Los Angeles Times. tronc, Inc. http://www.latimes.com/politics/la-pol-sac-proposition-64-marijuana-legalization-qa-20161030-snap-20161029-story.html. Retrieved 25 January 2017. 
  53. ↑ Rein, L. (21 December 2015). "The pot business may be legal, but newspapers can’t run ads for it, the U.S. Postal Service says". The Washington Post. WP Company, LLC. https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/federal-eye/wp/2015/12/21/the-pot-business-may-be-legal-but-newspapers-cant-run-ads-for-it-the-u-s-postal-service-says/. Retrieved 25 January 2017. 
  54. ↑ Oxenford, D. (13 December 2016). "Accepting Advertising for Marijuana or Marijuana Paraphernalia: The Trademark Office Rules on a Related Issue that Provides More Reason For Caution". Broadcast Law Blog. http://www.broadcastlawblog.com/2016/12/articles/accepting-advertising-for-marijuana-or-marijuana-paraphernalia-the-trademark-office-rules-on-a-related-issue-that-provides-more-reason-for-caution/. Retrieved 25 January 2017. 
  55. ↑ Adli, D. (21 December 2016). "Obtaining Trademark Protection for Cannabis Businesses". ADLI Law Group. http://adlilaw.blogspot.com/2016/12/obtaining-trademark-protection-for_9.html. Retrieved 25 January 2017. 
  56. ↑ McGreevy, P. (21 December 2016). "Pot ads along highways? Lawmakers wrangle over legalization's consequences". Los Angeles Times. tronc, Inc. http://www.latimes.com/politics/la-pol-ca-pot-ads-snap-20161221-story.html. Retrieved 25 January 2017. 
  57. ↑ Andrews, L. (27 December 2016). "Gaps in Alaska marijuana ad rules cause worry". Alaska Dispatch News. Alaska Dispatch Publishing. https://www.adn.com/alaska-marijuana/2016/12/26/gaps-in-alaska-marijuana-advertising-rules-cause-worry/. Retrieved 25 January 2017. 
  58. ↑ Stilson, J. (3 January 2017). "Why Marijuana Marketing Will Be Bigger Than Ever This Year". Adweek. Adweek, LLC. http://www.adweek.com/news/advertising-branding/why-marijuana-marketing-will-be-bigger-ever-year-175246. Retrieved 25 January 2017. 
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  61. ↑ "Drug Enforcement Administration: 1970–1975" (PDF). DEA History In Depth. U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration. https://www.dea.gov/about/history/1970-1975.pdf. Retrieved 27 January 2017. 
  62. ↑ Hamilton, K. (27 June 2016). "The FDA told the DEA whether pot is medicine — but it won't tell the public". Vice News. Vice Media, LLC. https://news.vice.com/article/dea-fda-marijuana-schedule-1-status-decision. Retrieved 27 January 2017. 
  63. ↑ Hudak, J. (20 June 2015). "The Conflict Between Federal and State Marijuana Laws Claims a Victim". Newsweek. Newsweek, LLC. http://www.newsweek.com/conflict-between-federal-and-state-marijuana-laws-claims-victim-345099. Retrieved 27 January 2017. 
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  67. ↑ Rocky Mountain HIDTA (August 2013). "The Legalization of Marijuana in Colorado: The Impact" (PDF). http://www.rmhidta.org/html/final%20legalization%20of%20mj%20in%20colorado%20the%20impact.pdf. Retrieved 26 January 2017. 
  68. ↑ Cole, J.M. (29 June 2011). "Memorandum for United States Attorneys" (PDF). Department of Justice. https://www.justice.gov/sites/default/files/oip/legacy/2014/07/23/dag-guidance-2011-for-medical-marijuana-use.pdf. Retrieved 26 January 2017. 
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  70. ↑ Fairman, B.J. (2016). "Trends in registered medical marijuana participation across 13 US states and District of Columbia". Drug and Alcohol Dependence 159: 72–9. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2015.11.015. PMID 26686277. 
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  72. ↑ "Federal Marijuana Enforcement Policy". Marijuana Policy Project. 2016. https://www.mpp.org/federal/federal-enforcement-policy-on-state-marijuana-laws/. Retrieved 26 January 2017. 
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  74. ↑ Brekke, D. (30 May 2014). "House Votes to End Medical Marijuana Prosecutions". KQED News. KQED, Inc. https://ww2.kqed.org/news/2014/05/30/house-votes-to-block-medical-pot-prosecution/. Retrieved 27 January 2017. 
  75. ↑ Ingraham, C. (20 October 2015). "Federal court tells the DEA to stop harassing medical marijuana providers". The Washington Post. WP Company, LLC. https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2015/10/20/federal-court-tells-the-dea-to-stop-harassing-medical-marijuana-providers/. Retrieved 27 January 2017. 
  76. ↑ Fermer, M. (16 August 2016). "The Largest Federal Appeals Court Tells DOJ To Back Off State-Legal Medical Marijuana". The Huffington Post. TheHuffingtonPost.com, Inc. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/medical-marijuana-9th-circuit_us_57b36a31e4b04ff883990337. Retrieved 27 January 2017. 
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  82. ↑ "Election Summary Report, State of Alaska 1998 General Election: Official Results". Election Results. State of Alaska Division of Elections. 1 December 1998. http://www.elections.alaska.gov/results/98GENR/results.htm. Retrieved 1 February 2017. 
  83. ↑ Burke, C. (4 January 2017). "Four More States Pass New Marijuana Laws: California, Maine, Massachusetts, Nevada". National Law Review. National Law Forum, LLC. http://www.natlawreview.com/article/four-more-states-pass-new-marijuana-laws-california-maine-massachusetts-nevada. Retrieved 01 February 2017. 
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  85. ↑ Cole, T.; Trumble, S.; Hatalsky, L.E. (17 February 20116). "All State Marijuana Laws Are Not Created Equal". Third Way. http://www.thirdway.org/report/all-state-marijuana-laws-are-not-created-equal. Retrieved 02 February 2017. 
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  88. ↑ Cannabis Committee, AHPA (2 February 2016). "Recommendations for Regulators – Cannabis Operations" (PDF). American Herbal Products Association. http://www.ahpa.org/Portals/0/pdfs/AHPA_Recommendations_for_Regulators_Cannabis_Operations.pdf. 
  89. ↑ Upton, R.; Craker, L.; ElSohly, M. et al., ed. (2014). Cannabis Inflorescence: Cannabis spp.. American Herbal Pharmacopoeia. ISBN 1929425333. http://www.herbal-ahp.org/order_online.htm. 
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