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===Modern laboratories and their importance===
===Modern laboratories and their importance===
The twentieth century saw laboratories of all kinds grow, develop, and mature, though not without their share of difficulties. In the 1920s, for example, some U.S. physicians, specialists, and dentists complained heavily of the lack of quality standards, regulations, and ethics inherent in for-profit clinical, chemical, and radiological laboratories.<ref name="TaylorAdvert1920">{{cite journal |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=LbEDAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA229 |journal=Texas State Journal of Medicine |title=Advertising Medical Laboratories (Encore) |author=Taylor, Holman (ed.) |volume=16 |issue=6 |date=October 1920 |pages=229–230 |accessdate=28 June 2017}}</ref><ref name="SondernCommer1921">{{cite journal |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=j7hYAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA390 |journal=New York State Journal of Medicine |title=Commercial Laboratories |author=Sondern, Frederic E. (ed.) |volume=21 |issue=10 |date=October 1921 |page=390 |accessdate=28 June 2017}}</ref><ref name="WhiteTheRole1922">{{cite journal |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=OTMTAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA755 |journal=Kentucky Medical Journal |title=The Role of the Nonmedical Graduate in the Medical Laboratory |author=White, Courtland Y. |volume=25 |issue=11 |date=August 1922 |pages=755–760 |accessdate=28 June 2017}}</ref><ref name="SundelofTheBus1922">{{cite journal |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=E741AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA442 |journal=The Boston Medical and Surgical Journal |title=The Business Side of X-ray Diagnosis and Treatment |author=Sundelof, E. M. |volume=186 |issue=13 |date=30 March 1922 |pages=442–444 |accessdate=28 June 2017}}</ref> Other changes took place there too, particularly after World War II, when a fundamental transition took place, shifting many perceptions of what was the "Western" world from Europe to the U.S. This post-war shift also saw focus from the philosophical and theoretical laboratorian to the experimental and practical lab researcher<ref name="PestreScience13">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZYUfAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA71 |title=Science in the Twentieth Century |chapter=Chapter 4: Science, Political Power and the State |author=Pestre, D. |editor=Krige, J.; Pestre, D. |publisher=Routledge |year=2013 |pages=61–76 |isbn=9057021722}}</ref>:
The twentieth century saw laboratories of all kinds grow, develop, and mature, though not without their share of difficulties. In the 1920s, for example, some U.S. physicians, specialists, and dentists complained heavily of the lack of quality standards, regulations, and ethics inherent in for-profit clinical, chemical, and radiological laboratories.<ref name="TaylorAdvert1920">{{cite journal |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=LbEDAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA229 |journal=Texas State Journal of Medicine |title=Advertising Medical Laboratories (Encore) |author=Taylor, Holman (ed.) |volume=16 |issue=6 |date=October 1920 |pages=229–230 |accessdate=28 June 2017}}</ref><ref name="SondernCommer1921">{{cite journal |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=j7hYAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA390 |journal=New York State Journal of Medicine |title=Commercial Laboratories |author=Sondern, Frederic E. (ed.) |volume=21 |issue=10 |date=October 1921 |page=390 |accessdate=28 June 2017}}</ref><ref name="WhiteTheRole1922">{{cite journal |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=OTMTAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA755 |journal=Kentucky Medical Journal |title=The Role of the Nonmedical Graduate in the Medical Laboratory |author=White, Courtland Y. |volume=25 |issue=11 |date=August 1922 |pages=755–760 |accessdate=28 June 2017}}</ref><ref name="SundelofTheBus1922">{{cite journal |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=E741AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA442 |journal=The Boston Medical and Surgical Journal |title=The Business Side of X-ray Diagnosis and Treatment |author=Sundelof, E. M. |volume=186 |issue=13 |date=30 March 1922 |pages=442–444 |accessdate=28 June 2017}}</ref> Other changes took place there too, particularly after World War II, when a fundamental transition took place, shifting many perceptions of what was the "Western" world from Europe to the U.S. This post-war shift also saw focus from the philosophical and theoretical laboratorian to the experimental and practical lab researcher, according to Pestre<ref name="PestreScience13">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZYUfAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA71 |title=Science in the Twentieth Century |chapter=Chapter 4: Science, Political Power and the State |author=Pestre, D. |editor=Krige, J.; Pestre, D. |publisher=Routledge |year=2013 |pages=61–76 |isbn=9057021722}}</ref>:


<blockquote>Fundamental theorists were still essential, and they were highly respected, but they no longer had that mythical status which was accorded to the founders of quantum mechanics. They were also in minority with those (the "phenomenologists") whose job it was to deal with the mass of experimental results produced in the laboratories. Seeking theories which were locally coherent and which could be immediately useful and produce numbers, their role was to display a practical efficiency. They thus participated in the development of a science which was increasingly integrated into its economic and political environment, and contributed to the multiplications of the sites where knowledge was produced. These were now the universities and the technical institutes, the national laboratories and the industrial laboratories (Siemens or General Electric), but also the myriad of small firms established as a result of government contracts.</blockquote>
<blockquote>Fundamental theorists were still essential, and they were highly respected, but they no longer had that mythical status which was accorded to the founders of quantum mechanics. They were also in minority with those (the "phenomenologists") whose job it was to deal with the mass of experimental results produced in the laboratories. Seeking theories which were locally coherent and which could be immediately useful and produce numbers, their role was to display a practical efficiency. They thus participated in the development of a science which was increasingly integrated into its economic and political environment, and contributed to the multiplications of the sites where knowledge was produced. These were now the universities and the technical institutes, the national laboratories and the industrial laboratories (Siemens or General Electric), but also the myriad of small firms established as a result of government contracts.</blockquote>


This transition carried on to other parts of the world, where the Industrial Revolution gave way to the Scientific-Technical Revolution of the '50 and '60s, and that to the Information Age in roughly the late '70s to early '80s. Through all of these time periods to present day, we've seen the amount of information moving in and out of laboratories multiply drastically, particularly with the advent of data-producing analytical devices and data management tools, including genomics equipment such as DNA sequencers.<ref name="PollackDNA11">{{cite web |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2011/12/01/business/dna-sequencing-caught-in-deluge-of-data.html |title=DNA Sequencing Caught in Deluge of Data |author=Pollack, A. |work=The New York Times |publisher=The New York Times Company |date=30 November 2011 |accessdate=28 June 2017}}</ref>
This transition carried on to other parts of the world, where the Industrial Revolution gave way to the Scientific-Technical Revolution of the '50 and '60s, and that to the Information Age in roughly the late '70s to early '80s. Through all of these time periods to present day, we've seen the amount of information moving in and out of laboratories multiply drastically as well, particularly with the advent of data-producing analytical devices and data management tools, including genomics equipment such as DNA sequencers.<ref name="PollackDNA11">{{cite web |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2011/12/01/business/dna-sequencing-caught-in-deluge-of-data.html |title=DNA Sequencing Caught in Deluge of Data |author=Pollack, A. |work=The New York Times |publisher=The New York Times Company |date=30 November 2011 |accessdate=28 June 2017}}</ref>
 
Most importantly, however, is the ubiquity of the laboratory in our lives today. The previous quote from Pestre is important to note when thinking about this concept; today we see labs in all the places he mentioned as well as in other unexpected locations and fields of research, including the expanding cannabis industry.<ref name="DouglasPast17">{{cite web |url=https://www.limswiki.org/index.php/LII:Past,_Present,_and_Future_of_Cannabis_Laboratory_Testing_and_Regulation_in_the_United_States |title=Past, Present, and Future of Cannabis Laboratory Testing and Regulation in the United States |author=Douglas, S.E. |work=LIMSwiki.org |date=April 2017 |accessdate=28 June 2017}}</ref> Like the idea of the ubiquitous transistor and how easy it is to take for granted<ref name="GaudinTheTrans07">{{cite web |url=http://www.computerworld.com/article/2538123/computer-processors/the-transistor--the-most-important-invention-of-the-20th-century-.html |title=The transistor: The most important invention of the 20th century? |author=Gaudin, S. |work=Computerworld |publisher=IDG Communication, Inc |date=12 December 2007 |accessdate=28 June 2017}}</ref>, the laboratory is also found everywhere, sometimes obvious (when you need to have blood drawn for a medical test) and other times not at all (the U.S. Navy's Arctic Submarine Laboratory<ref name="USNArctic">{{cite web |title=Arctic Submarine Laboratory |publisher=United States Navy |accessdate=28 June 2017}}</ref>).
 
And these labs are important.


==Further reading==
==Further reading==

Revision as of 23:27, 28 June 2017

Here we take a brief look at the history of the laboratory to help give perspective about why they're important to modern life.

-----Return to the beginning of this guide-----

Laboratories: A historical perspective

Introduction

Origins of the laboratory

Among the earliest known organized scientific study was that under the rule of the early Ptolomies of Alexandria in the third century B.C. While little to no evidence seems to exist for public or organized laboratories during this time period, researchers and historians widely accept the idea that at least organized and individual research (meaning "direct personal contact with the objects of study, and by the aid of such appliances as were then available"[1]) into anatomy, physiology, and medicine took place.[2][3][1][4] Dissections and experiments took place, but certainly not in an organized teaching or research laboratory setting like today. Early twentieth-century philosopher of science Edgar Zilsel suggests that scientific endeavor was non-collaborative in this early era, and the laboratory as a collaborative environment simply didn't exist[2]:

No publications, no astronomical or geographical investigation which are the work of several collaborating scientists are known. Even the learned compendia of the Roman period (Varro, Pliny, Celsus) and the encyclopedias of late antiquity (Boëthius) were composed by single polyhistors. There is no evidence that the Alexandrian Museum conjointly carried out investigations. Laboratories, the birth places of scientific co-operation in the modern era, existed neither in the Alexandrian Museum, nor in the Academy, nor in the Lyceum. As far as the fellow scholars of the museum did not work each for himself they might have contented themselves with dinners and debates. And of course, there were in antiquity no scientific periodicals in which new findings could have been discussed.

With scientific advancement and discovery still largely a personal (i.e, prestigious) goal, even through the Renaissance humanists of the fourteenth through sixteenth century A.D.[2], it would take quite some time for both the private and public laboratory to evolve. To be certain, private laboratories surely existed, from Aristotle[1] (third century B.C.) to the anatomical laboratory — "the first scientific laboratory" — that began to take hold in the late thirteenth to early fourteenth century[1][5], all the way to the "zenith" of the alchemical research laboratory in the second half of the sixteenth century.[6] But it wouldn't be until the late sixteenth to early seventeenth century that collaboratory science and the first university-affiliated labs would appear.

Zilsel claims that Italian polymath Galileo Galilei, while teaching at the University of Padua from 1592 to 1610, founded the first university-affiliated laboratory in his own home, with help from craftsmen who aided in researching architectural and mechanical concepts.[7] As Galileo was nearing completion of his professorship at Padua, chemist Johannes Hartmann opened up a university laboratory for students at the University of Marburg in 1609, albeit for "instruction not in [chemical] analysis — still in a very rudimentary state — but in pharmaceutical preparations."[8] One of the first actual public laboratories dedicated to chemical instruction was founded later that century, in 1683, hosted at the University of Altdorf, created and directed by physician and professor Johan Moritz Hofmann.[8][9][10] That same year the (Old) Ashmolean played host to Britian's first university laboratory, directed by chemistry chair Robert Plot.[11][12]

By the end of the seventeenth century, textbooks on various subjects such as anatomy[13] and chemistry[9] were becoming more notable, and numerous vital scientific measurement and observation devices — including astronomy equipment — had been created.[14] And most importantly, as early twentieth century political science researcher Martha Ornstein put it, after much build-up, finally "the [public] chemical and physical laboratory existed in embryonic form."[14]

Eighteenth- and nineteenth-century laboratories

The eighteenth century saw the "embryonic" laboratories develop further, but in truth in wasn't until the nineteenth century that the age of the laboratory in academic, hospital, and — particularly in the latter half of the century[1][15][16][17] — physician settings began to bloom. Some historians describe the changes that took place during these centuries as a transition from natural philosophy — sometimes referred to as "experimental philosophy" — and its "philosophical instruments" to natural or empirical science (or "physics," but not in the modern sense[18]) and the laboratory instruments used to better analyze and describe the physical and life sciences.[18][19][20]

Even by the late eighteenth century, the laboratory was still viewed as a "workshop," a place for material (chemicals, colored glass, etc.) production.[21] However, instances of scientists beginning to view laboratory teaching and hands-on analysis as vital slowly began to spring forth. For example, the laboratory teaching of practical or "physical chemistry" — separating itself even further by several decades from alchemical study — first took place in St. Petersburg, Russia in 1751 under the professorship of Mikhail Lomonosov. Two years prior he had built for him a small 15 x 9 meter brick structure where he developed colored glasses for mosaics, but he quickly turned his focus towards using the laboratory to teach students in physical chemistry, "a science which must explain by means of physical laws and experiments the cause of changes produced by chemical operations in composite bodies."[22] Three years later in Berlin, the Prussian Academy of Sciences' academic laboratory was founded with materials from a previously associated artisanal lab, signalling a shift "from commercial production to systematic observation and experimental exploration of the properties and chemical transformations of material substances."[20]

Speaking of German kingdoms, universities and associated laboratories in the region continued to build a renowned reputation on into the early and mid-nineteenth century.[21][23] In 1806, Friedrich Stromeyer, fresh from being named "extraordinary professor" after the death of Johann Friedrich Gmelin, took over as director of University of Göttingen's chemical laboratory. Stromeyer's strong opinion that students could only learn chemistry best through practice and self-analysis led to a subtle but significant change: the development of one of the first university laboratories in Germany to offer students hands-on chemical analysis.[10][8] Following a similar path, Czech physiologist Johannes Evangelista Purkinje, upon being appointed a professor at the University of Breslau (then a part of Germany), set up a private physiology laboratory in 1824 within his own house and taught students from it. Impressed by his work, the government eventually helped Purkinje set up the world's first professional physiology laboratory in 1842, known as the Physiological Institute.[24][23] And in 1826, at the University of Giessen, influential chemist Justus Liebig began perhaps not the first but definitely one of the more influential teaching and analysis laboratories, his work influencing the future direction of German as well as international universities and institutes.[25][8] That carried over to Wilhelm Weber's physics lab at Göttingen University (1833), Franz Neumann's physics lab in Königsberg (1847), Robert Bunsen's chemical teaching and research laboratory in Heidelberg (c. 1850), and Johann N. Czermak's spectatorium for physiology teaching in Leipzig (c. 1870).[21]

By the late eighteenth century, other countries were marveling at the laboratories of the German-speaking countries.[21][23] Industrial labs were beginning to pop up around the world, including the United States, with researchers "interested in getting patents recognized so as to have commercial control of the processes and products involved in their research."[21] Even physician laboratories were beginning to take shape at the turn of the century as instruments such as centrifuges, microscopes, and microtomes became slightly easier to acquire.[17][26] The role-based division of responsibilities within laboratories was also becoming entrenched into labs by the end of the century.[21][23]

Modern laboratories and their importance

The twentieth century saw laboratories of all kinds grow, develop, and mature, though not without their share of difficulties. In the 1920s, for example, some U.S. physicians, specialists, and dentists complained heavily of the lack of quality standards, regulations, and ethics inherent in for-profit clinical, chemical, and radiological laboratories.[27][28][29][30] Other changes took place there too, particularly after World War II, when a fundamental transition took place, shifting many perceptions of what was the "Western" world from Europe to the U.S. This post-war shift also saw focus from the philosophical and theoretical laboratorian to the experimental and practical lab researcher, according to Pestre[31]:

Fundamental theorists were still essential, and they were highly respected, but they no longer had that mythical status which was accorded to the founders of quantum mechanics. They were also in minority with those (the "phenomenologists") whose job it was to deal with the mass of experimental results produced in the laboratories. Seeking theories which were locally coherent and which could be immediately useful and produce numbers, their role was to display a practical efficiency. They thus participated in the development of a science which was increasingly integrated into its economic and political environment, and contributed to the multiplications of the sites where knowledge was produced. These were now the universities and the technical institutes, the national laboratories and the industrial laboratories (Siemens or General Electric), but also the myriad of small firms established as a result of government contracts.

This transition carried on to other parts of the world, where the Industrial Revolution gave way to the Scientific-Technical Revolution of the '50 and '60s, and that to the Information Age in roughly the late '70s to early '80s. Through all of these time periods to present day, we've seen the amount of information moving in and out of laboratories multiply drastically as well, particularly with the advent of data-producing analytical devices and data management tools, including genomics equipment such as DNA sequencers.[32]

Most importantly, however, is the ubiquity of the laboratory in our lives today. The previous quote from Pestre is important to note when thinking about this concept; today we see labs in all the places he mentioned as well as in other unexpected locations and fields of research, including the expanding cannabis industry.[33] Like the idea of the ubiquitous transistor and how easy it is to take for granted[34], the laboratory is also found everywhere, sometimes obvious (when you need to have blood drawn for a medical test) and other times not at all (the U.S. Navy's Arctic Submarine Laboratory[35]).

And these labs are important.

Further reading


  • Klein, U. (2008). "The Laboratory Challenge: Some Revisions of the Standard View of Early Modern Experimentation". Isis 99 (4): 769-782. doi:10.1086/595771. 




References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 Welch, William Henry (1920). "The Evolution of Modern Scientific Laboratories". Papers and Addresses by William Henry Welch. 3. The Johns Hopkins Press. pp. 200–211. http://books.google.com/books?id=utc0AQAAMAAJ&pg=200. 
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 Zilsel, E. (2003). "The Genesis of the Concept of Scientific Progress and Cooperation". In Cohen, R.S., Wartofsky, M.W.. The Social Origins of Modern Science. Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science. Kluwer Academic Publishers. pp. 130–171. ISBN 1402013590. 
  3. ↑ Martin, H.N. (1895). "Some Thoughts About Laboratories". Physiological Papers. The John Hopkins Press. pp. 256–264. https://books.google.com/books?id=Raw-AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA256. 
  4. ↑ Serageldin, I. (2013). "Ancient Alexandria and the dawn of medical science". Global Cardiology Science & Practice 2013 (4): 395–404. doi:10.5339/gcsp.2013.47. PMC PMC3991212. PMID 24749113. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3991212. 
  5. ↑ Walker, H.K. (1990). "Chapter 1: The Origins of the History and Physical Examination". In Walker, H.K.; Hall, W.D.; Hurst, J.W.. Clinical Methods: The History, Physical, and Laboratory Examinations (3rd ed.). Butterworths. ISBN 040990077X. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK201/. 
  6. ↑ Martinón-Torres, M.; Rehren, T.; von Osten, S.. "A 16th century lab in a 21st century lab: Archaeometric study of the laboratory equipment from Oberstockstall (Kirchberg am Wagram, Austria)". Antiquity 77 (298). http://antiquity.ac.uk/projgall/martinon298. 
  7. ↑ Zilsel, E. (2000). "The Sociological Roots of Science". Social Studies of Science 30 (6): 935–949. http://www.jstor.org/stable/285793. 
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 Ihde, A.J. (1984). "Chapter 10: The Diffusion of Chemical Knowledge". The Development of Modern Chemistry. Dover Publications. pp. 259–276. ISBN 0486642356. https://books.google.com/books?id=89BIAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA262. 
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Wiechmann, F.G. (1899). Chemistry: Its Evolution and Achievements. Science Sketches. New York: William R. Jenkins. pp. 176. https://books.google.com/books?id=z4k-AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA83. 
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 Lockemann, G.; Oesper, R.E. (1953). "Friedrich Stromeyer and the history of chemical laboratory instruction". Journal of Chemical Education 30 (4): 202–204. doi:10.1021/ed030p202. 
  11. ↑ Bowen, E.J. (1970). "The Balliol-Trinity Laboratories, Oxford 1853-1940". Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London 25 (2): 227–236. http://www.jstor.org/stable/530877. 
  12. ↑ Martinón-Torres, M. (2011-2012). "The Archaeology of Alchemy and Chemistry in the Early Modern World: An Afterthought". Archaeology International 15: 33–36. doi:10.5334/ai.1508. 
  13. ↑ Bartholin, T. (2015). he Anatomy House in Copenhagen. Museum Tusculanum Press. pp. 222. ISBN 9788763542593. https://books.google.com/books?id=Y9o_CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA20. 
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Bronfenbrenner, M.O. (1913). The Role of Scientific Societies in the Seventeenth Century. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 308. https://books.google.com/books?id=-v4CAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA11. 
  15. ↑ Simon, Charles E. (9 May 1896). "The Importance of Laboratory Methods in Diagnosis". Maryland Medical Journal 35 (4): 55–57. http://books.google.com/books?id=dooRAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA55. Retrieved 28 June 2017. 
  16. ↑ Shoemaker, John V. (ed.) (November 1884). "Chemical Department at Jefferson Medical College". The Medical Bulletin: A Monthly Journal of Medicine and Surgery 6 (11): 277–278. http://books.google.com/books?id=DmQWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA277. Retrieved 28 June 2017. 
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Elliott, L. B. (March 1898). "Editorial". Journal of Applied Microscopy 1 (3): 57–58. http://books.google.com/books?id=bcjRAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA57. Retrieved 28 June 2017. 
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 Buchwald, J.Z.; Hong, S. (2003). "Chapter 6: Physics". In Cahan, D.. From Natural Philosophy to the Sciences: Writing the History of Nineteenth-Century Science. University of Chicago Press. pp. 163–195. ISBN 9780226089287. https://books.google.com/books?id=k5qgGcZVOugC&pg=PA163. 
  19. ↑ Zuidervaart, H.J. (2013). "Cabinets for Experimental Philosophy in the Netherlands". In Bennett, J.; Talas, S.. Cabinets of Experimental Philosophy in Eighteenth-Century Europe. Brill. pp. 1–26. ISBN 9789004252974. https://books.google.com/books?id=DJKiWjpCgAkC&pg=PA4. 
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 Klein, U. (2008). "The Laboratory Challenge: Some Revisions of the Standard View of Early Modern Experimentation". Isis 99 (4): 769-782. doi:10.1086/595771. 
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 21.2 21.3 21.4 21.5 Schmidgen, H. (8 August 2011). "The Laboratory". European History Online (EGO). Institute of European History. http://www.ieg-ego.eu/schmidgenh-2011-en. Retrieved 28 June 2017. 
  22. ↑ Menschutkin, B.N. (1927). "A Russian physical chemist of the eighteenth century". Journal of Chemical Education 4 (9): 1079–1087. doi:10.1021/ed004p1079. 
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 23.2 23.3 "The Laboratory in Modern Science". Mechanics (David Williams) 5 (120): 290. 19 April 1884. https://books.google.com/books?id=yAZHAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA290. 
  24. ↑ Garrison, F.H. (1921). "XI: The Nineteenth Century: The Beginnings of Organized Advancement of Science". An Introduction to the History of Medicine (3rd ed.). W.B. Saunders Company. pp. 486–488. https://books.google.com/books?id=JvoIAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA486. 
  25. ↑ Holmes, F.L.. "The Complementarity of Teaching and Research in Liebig's Laboratory". Osiris 5: 121-164. http://www.jstor.org/stable/301795. 
  26. ↑ Bartley, Elias H. (1899). Manual of Clinical Chemistry. P. Blakiston's Son & Co. p. 53. http://books.google.com/books?id=FqPVAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA53. Retrieved 28 June 2017. 
  27. ↑ Taylor, Holman (ed.) (October 1920). "Advertising Medical Laboratories (Encore)". Texas State Journal of Medicine 16 (6): 229–230. http://books.google.com/books?id=LbEDAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA229. Retrieved 28 June 2017. 
  28. ↑ Sondern, Frederic E. (ed.) (October 1921). "Commercial Laboratories". New York State Journal of Medicine 21 (10): 390. http://books.google.com/books?id=j7hYAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA390. Retrieved 28 June 2017. 
  29. ↑ White, Courtland Y. (August 1922). "The Role of the Nonmedical Graduate in the Medical Laboratory". Kentucky Medical Journal 25 (11): 755–760. http://books.google.com/books?id=OTMTAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA755. Retrieved 28 June 2017. 
  30. ↑ Sundelof, E. M. (30 March 1922). "The Business Side of X-ray Diagnosis and Treatment". The Boston Medical and Surgical Journal 186 (13): 442–444. http://books.google.com/books?id=E741AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA442. Retrieved 28 June 2017. 
  31. ↑ Pestre, D. (2013). "Chapter 4: Science, Political Power and the State". In Krige, J.; Pestre, D.. Science in the Twentieth Century. Routledge. pp. 61–76. ISBN 9057021722. https://books.google.com/books?id=ZYUfAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA71. 
  32. ↑ Pollack, A. (30 November 2011). "DNA Sequencing Caught in Deluge of Data". The New York Times. The New York Times Company. http://www.nytimes.com/2011/12/01/business/dna-sequencing-caught-in-deluge-of-data.html. Retrieved 28 June 2017. 
  33. ↑ Douglas, S.E. (April 2017). "Past, Present, and Future of Cannabis Laboratory Testing and Regulation in the United States". LIMSwiki.org. https://www.limswiki.org/index.php/LII:Past,_Present,_and_Future_of_Cannabis_Laboratory_Testing_and_Regulation_in_the_United_States. Retrieved 28 June 2017. 
  34. ↑ Gaudin, S. (12 December 2007). "The transistor: The most important invention of the 20th century?". Computerworld. IDG Communication, Inc. http://www.computerworld.com/article/2538123/computer-processors/the-transistor--the-most-important-invention-of-the-20th-century-.html. Retrieved 28 June 2017. 
  35. ↑ "Arctic Submarine Laboratory". United States Navy. 


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